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Understanding how large language models (LLMs) acquire, retain, and apply knowledge remains an open challenge. This paper introduces a novel framework, K-(CSA)^2, which categorizes LLM knowledge along two dimensions: correctness and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-01-03 Yanbo Fang , Ruixiang Tang

Large language models (LLMs) can store a significant amount of factual knowledge in their parameters. However, their parametric knowledge may conflict with the information provided in the context. Such conflicts can lead to undesirable…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Yu Zhao , Xiaotang Du , Giwon Hong , Aryo Pradipta Gema , Alessio Devoto , Hongru Wang , Xuanli He , Kam-Fai Wong , Pasquale Minervini

Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) systems have been widely adopted in contemporary large language models (LLMs) due to their ability to improve generation quality while reducing the required input context length. In this work, we focus…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-07 Tianyi Zhang , Andreas Marfurt

Large language models (LLMs) often struggle with knowledge intensive NLP tasks, such as answering "Who won the latest World Cup?" because the knowledge they learn during training may be insufficient or outdated. Conditioning generation on…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-04 Matthew Finlayson , Ilia Kulikov , Daniel M. Bikel , Barlas Oguz , Xilun Chen , Aasish Pappu

As the post-training of large language models (LLMs) advances from instruction-following to complex reasoning tasks, understanding how different data affect finetuning dynamics remains largely unexplored. In this paper, we present a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Ming Li , Yanhong Li , Ziyue Li , Tianyi Zhou

The transition of Large Language Models (LLMs) from passive knowledge retrievers to autonomous clinical agents demands a shift in evaluation-from static accuracy to dynamic behavioral reliability. To explore this boundary in dentistry, a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Hongyang Ma , Tiantian Gu , Huaiyuan Sun , Huilin Zhu , Yongxin Wang , Jie Li , Wubin Sun , Zeliang Lian , Yinghong Zhou , Yi Gao , Shirui Wang , Zhihui Tang

Current Reinforcement Fine-tuning (RFT) paradigms for Large Language Models (LLMs) suffer from sample inefficiency due to the redundant exposure of identical queries under uniform data sampling. While previous work has explored curriculum…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Qinsi Wang , Jinghan Ke , Hancheng Ye , Yueqian Lin , Yuzhe Fu , Jianyi Zhang , Kurt Keutzer , Chenfeng Xu , Yiran Chen

Training loss and throughput can hide distinct internal representation in language-model training. To examine these hidden mechanics, we use spectral measurements as practical and operational diagnostics. Using a controlled family of…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-05-08 Andy Zeyi Liu , Elliot Paquette , John Sous

Federated Learning (FL) framework brings privacy benefits to distributed learning systems by allowing multiple clients to participate in a learning task under the coordination of a central server without exchanging their private data.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-03-30 Zhuohang Li , Jiaxin Zhang , Luyang Liu , Jian Liu

Large Language Models (LLMs) and Knowledge Graphs (KGs) offer a promising approach to robust and explainable Question Answering (QA). While LLMs excel at natural language understanding, they suffer from knowledge gaps and hallucinations.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-15 Jasper Linders , Jakub M. Tomczak

This paper explores the spatial reasoning capability of large language models (LLMs) over textual input through a suite of five tasks aimed at probing their spatial understanding and computational abilities. The models were tested on both…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-24 Maggie Bai , Ava Kim Cohen , Eleanor Koss , Charlie Lichtenbaum

Deep Learning (DL) models proved themselves to perform extremely well on a wide variety of learning tasks, as they can learn useful patterns from large data sets. However, purely data-driven models might struggle when very difficult…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-05-22 Andrea Borghesi , Federico Baldo , Michela Milano

Knowledge distillation is an efficient strategy to use data generated by large "teacher" language models to train smaller capable "student" models, but selecting the optimal teacher for a specific student-task combination requires expensive…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-23 Abhishek Panigrahi , Bingbin Liu , Sadhika Malladi , Sham Kakade , Surbhi Goel

Large Language Models (LLMs) integrated with Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) techniques have exhibited remarkable performance across a wide range of domains. However, existing RAG approaches primarily operate on unstructured data and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Ge Chang , Jinbo Su , Jiacheng Liu , Pengfei Yang , Yuhao Shang , Huiwen Zheng , Hongli Ma , Yan Liang , Yuanchun Li , Yunxin Liu

In feedback generation for logical errors in programming assignments, large language model (LLM)-based methods have shown great promise. These methods ask the LLM to generate feedback given the problem statement and a student's (buggy)…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-10 Hasnain Heickal , Andrew Lan

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown unprecedented performance in various real-world applications. However, they are known to generate factually inaccurate outputs, a.k.a. the hallucination problem. In recent years, incorporating…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-21 Haochen Liu , Song Wang , Yaochen Zhu , Yushun Dong , Jundong Li

Large Language Models (LLMs) are able to improve their responses when instructed to do so, a capability known as self-correction. When instructions provide only the task's goal without specific details about potential issues in the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-11 Guangliang Liu , Haitao Mao , Bochuan Cao , Zhiyu Xue , Xitong Zhang , Rongrong Wang , Jiliang Tang , Kristen Johnson

In the context of classification problems, Deep Learning (DL) approaches represent state of art. Many DL approaches are based on variations of standard multi-layer feed-forward neural networks. These are also referred to as deep networks.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-21 Andrea Apicella , Francesco Isgrò , Roberto Prevete

Can large language models (LLMs) express their uncertainty in situations where they lack sufficient parametric knowledge to generate reasonable responses? This work aims to systematically investigate LLMs' behaviors in such situations,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-02-19 Genglin Liu , Xingyao Wang , Lifan Yuan , Yangyi Chen , Hao Peng

Language Models (LMs) struggle with linguistic understanding at the discourse level, even though discourse patterns such as coherence, cohesion, and narrative flow are prevalent in their pre-training data. To improve the discourse…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Zachary Bamberger , Ofek Glick , Chaim Baskin , Yonatan Belinkov