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Human evaluation is indispensable and inevitable for assessing the quality of texts generated by machine learning models or written by humans. However, human evaluation is very difficult to reproduce and its quality is notoriously unstable,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-04 Cheng-Han Chiang , Hung-yi Lee

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across diverse tasks, but their ability to forecast future events remains understudied. A year ago, large language models struggle to come close to the accuracy of a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-08-06 Janna Lu

Large language models (LLMs) have been found to produce hallucinations when the question exceeds their internal knowledge boundaries. A reliable model should have a clear perception of its knowledge boundaries, providing correct answers…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-08-20 Shiyu Ni , Keping Bi , Lulu Yu , Jiafeng Guo

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used in decision-making contexts, but when they present answers without signaling low confidence, users may unknowingly act on erroneous outputs. Prior work shows that LLMs maintain internal…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-23 Mark Steyvers , Catarina Belem , Padhraic Smyth

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used to predict human behavior. We propose a measure for evaluating how much knowledge a pretrained LLM brings to such a prediction: its equivalent sample size, defined as the amount of…

Econometrics · Economics 2026-01-21 Wayne Gao , Sukjin Han , Annie Liang

Large language models (LLMs) are a promising venue for natural language understanding and generation tasks. However, current LLMs are far from reliable: they are prone to generate non-factual information and, more crucially, to contradict…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-22 Diego Calanzone , Stefano Teso , Antonio Vergari

Despite the dramatic progress in Large Language Model (LLM) development, LLMs often provide seemingly plausible but not factual information, often referred to as hallucinations. Retrieval-augmented LLMs provide a non-parametric approach to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-09 Sai Munikoti , Anurag Acharya , Sridevi Wagle , Sameera Horawalavithana

Do large language models (LLMs) display rational reasoning? LLMs have been shown to contain human biases due to the data they have been trained on; whether this is reflected in rational reasoning remains less clear. In this paper, we answer…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-02-16 Olivia Macmillan-Scott , Mirco Musolesi

When we read, we make predictions about upcoming words; these predictions influence our reading behavior. The success of large language models (LLMs), which, like humans, make predictions about upcoming words, has motivated their use as…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-27 Byung-Doh Oh , Tal Linzen

Behavioral simulation is increasingly used to anticipate responses to interventions. Large language models (LLMs) enable researchers to specify population characteristics and intervention context in natural language, but it remains unclear…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Zonghan Li , Feng Ji

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used in statistical research and applications. However,they are also notorious for unreliable or biased information. Here, we explore whether LLMs can be used to improve the precision of…

Applications · Statistics 2026-05-29 Jaylin Lowe , Adam Sales , Johann A. Gagnon-Bartsch

To enhance Large Language Models' (LLMs) reliability, calibration is essential -- the model's assessed confidence scores should align with the actual likelihood of its responses being correct. However, current confidence elicitation methods…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-29 Yukun Huang , Yixin Liu , Raghuveer Thirukovalluru , Arman Cohan , Bhuwan Dhingra

As large language models (LLMs) continue to evolve, understanding and quantifying the uncertainty in their predictions is critical for enhancing application credibility. However, the existing literature relevant to LLM uncertainty…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-22 Hsiu-Yuan Huang , Yutong Yang , Zhaoxi Zhang , Sanwoo Lee , Yunfang Wu

Large Language Models (LLMs) show promise for natural language generation in healthcare, but risk hallucinating factually incorrect information. Deploying LLMs for medical question answering necessitates reliable uncertainty estimation (UE)…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-12 Jiaxin Wu , Yizhou Yu , Hong-Yu Zhou

Real-world settings where language models (LMs) are deployed -- in domains spanning healthcare, finance, and other forms of knowledge work -- require models to grapple with incomplete information and reason under uncertainty. Yet most LM…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-24 Alana Renda , Jillian Ross , Michael Cafarella , Jacob Andreas

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated exceptional capabilities, yet selecting the most reliable response from multiple LLMs remains a challenge, particularly in resource-constrained settings. Existing approaches often depend on…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-06 Aakriti Agrawal , Rohith Aralikatti , Anirudh Satheesh , Souradip Chakraborty , Amrit Singh Bedi , Furong Huang

Large Language Models (LLMs) have been widely employed in programming language analysis to enhance human productivity. Yet, their reliability can be compromised by various code distribution shifts, leading to inconsistent outputs. While…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-02-12 Yufei Li , Simin Chen , Yanghong Guo , Wei Yang , Yue Dong , Cong Liu

The capabilities and limitations of Large Language Models have been sketched out in great detail in recent years, providing an intriguing yet conflicting picture. On the one hand, LLMs demonstrate a general ability to solve problems. On the…

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across various tasks. However, these models could offer biased, hallucinated, or non-factual responses camouflaged by their fluency and realistic appearance. Uncertainty…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-30 Zhiqiu Xia , Jinxuan Xu , Yuqian Zhang , Hang Liu

The potential of large language models (LLMs) as decision support tools is increasingly being explored in fields such as business, engineering, and medicine, which often face challenging tasks of decision-making under uncertainty. In this…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-10-14 Ollie Liu , Deqing Fu , Dani Yogatama , Willie Neiswanger