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This paper presents a comprehensive study on the tokenization techniques employed by state-of-the-art large language models (LLMs) and their implications on the cost and availability of services across different languages, especially low…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-07 Abrar Rahman , Garry Bowlin , Binit Mohanty , Sean McGunigal

Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR) remains a challenging problem to date, largely due to the varying writing styles that exist amongst us. Prior works however generally operate with the assumption that there is a limited number of styles,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-04-06 Ayan Kumar Bhunia , Shuvozit Ghose , Amandeep Kumar , Pinaki Nath Chowdhury , Aneeshan Sain , Yi-Zhe Song

Handwritten Text Recognition has achieved an impressive performance in public benchmarks. However, due to the high inter- and intra-class variability between handwriting styles, such recognizers need to be trained using huge volumes of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-04-13 Lei Kang , Pau Riba , Marçal Rusiñol , Alicia Fornés , Mauricio Villegas

Large Language Models have proven highly successful at modelling a variety of tasks. However, this comes at a steep computational cost that hinders wider industrial uptake. In this paper, we present MWT: a Multi-Word Tokenizer that goes…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-08 Leonidas Gee , Leonardo Rigutini , Marco Ernandes , Andrea Zugarini

A handwritten word recognition system comes with issues such as lack of large and diverse datasets. It is necessary to resolve such issues since millions of official documents can be digitized by training deep learning models using a large…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-15 Mst Shapna Akter , Hossain Shahriar , Alfredo Cuzzocrea , Nova Ahmed , Carson Leung

The text-independent approach to writer identification does not require the writer to write some predetermined text. Previous research on text-independent writer identification has been based on identifying writer-specific features designed…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-09-11 Hung Tuan Nguyen , Cuong Tuan Nguyen , Takeya Ino , Bipin Indurkhya , Masaki Nakagawa

In this paper, we work on intra-variable handwriting, where the writing samples of an individual can vary significantly. Such within-writer variation throws a challenge for automatic writer inspection, where the state-of-the-art methods do…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-05-08 Chandranath Adak , Bidyut B. Chaudhuri , Chin-Teng Lin , Michael Blumenstein

Handwritten text and scene text suffer from various shapes and distorted patterns. Thus training a robust recognition model requires a large amount of data to cover diversity as much as possible. In contrast to data collection and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-03-17 Canjie Luo , Yuanzhi Zhu , Lianwen Jin , Yongpan Wang

Text-independent writer identification is challenging due to the huge variation of written contents and the ambiguous written styles of different writers. This paper proposes DeepWriter, a deep multi-stream CNN to learn deep powerful…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2016-08-04 Linjie Xing , Yu Qiao

Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR) is still a challenging problem because it must deal with two important difficulties: the variability among writing styles, and the scarcity of labelled data. To alleviate such problems, synthetic data…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-05-28 Lei Kang , Marçal Rusiñol , Alicia Fornés , Pau Riba , Mauricio Villegas

Modern language models mostly take sub-words as input, a design that balances the trade-off between vocabulary size, number of parameters, and performance. However, sub-word tokenization still has disadvantages like not being robust to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-11-24 Chu-Tak Lee , Qipeng Guo , Xipeng Qiu

Data augmentation is a technique to generate new training data based on existing data. We evaluate the simple and cost-effective method of concatenating the original data examples to build new training instances. Continued training with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-06-12 Tsz Kin Lam , Shigehiko Schamoni , Stefan Riezler

Current language models (LMs) use a fixed, static subword tokenizer. This default choice typically results in degraded efficiency and language capabilities, especially in languages other than English. To address this issue, we challenge the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-12 Darius Feher , Ivan Vulić , Benjamin Minixhofer

With Large Language Models (LLMs) rapidly approaching and potentially surpassing human-level performance, it has become imperative to develop approaches capable of effectively supervising and enhancing these powerful models using smaller,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-24 Aakriti Agrawal , Mucong Ding , Zora Che , Chenghao Deng , Anirudh Satheesh , Bang An , Bayan Bruss , John Langford , Furong Huang

Tokenization significantly influences language models(LMs)' performance. This paper traces the evolution of tokenizers from word-level to subword-level, analyzing how they balance tokens and types to enhance model adaptability while…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-04 Jinbiao Yang

Tokenization is a fundamental component of language models for code. It involves breaking down the input into units that are later passed to the language model stack to learn high-dimensional representations used in various contexts, from…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-07-22 Mootez Saad , Hao Li , Tushar Sharma , Ahmed E. Hassan

With Large Language Models (LLMs) rapidly approaching and potentially surpassing human-level performance, it has become imperative to develop approaches capable of effectively supervising and enhancing these powerful models using smaller,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-06 Aakriti Agrawal , Mucong Ding , Zora Che , Chenghao Deng , Anirudh Satheesh , Bang An , Bayan Bruss , John Langford , Furong Huang

One of limitations in end-to-end automatic speech recognition (ASR) framework is its performance would be compromised if train-test utterance lengths are mismatched. In this paper, we propose an on-the-fly random utterance concatenation…

Audio and Speech Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-05-26 Yist Y. Lin , Tao Han , Haihua Xu , Van Tung Pham , Yerbolat Khassanov , Tze Yuang Chong , Yi He , Lu Lu , Zejun Ma

Data augmentation is used in machine learning to make the classifier invariant to label-preserving transformations. Usually this invariance is only encouraged implicitly by including a single augmented input during training. However,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-08 Aleksander Botev , Matthias Bauer , Soham De

We introduce style augmentation, a new form of data augmentation based on random style transfer, for improving the robustness of convolutional neural networks (CNN) over both classification and regression based tasks. During training, our…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-04-15 Philip T. Jackson , Amir Atapour-Abarghouei , Stephen Bonner , Toby Breckon , Boguslaw Obara