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Watermarking has emerged as a promising way to detect LLM-generated text, by augmenting LLM generations with later detectable signals. Recent work has proposed multiple families of watermarking schemes, several of which focus on preserving…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-25 Thibaud Gloaguen , Nikola Jovanović , Robin Staab , Martin Vechev

Watermarking has recently emerged as an effective strategy for detecting the outputs of large language models (LLMs). Most existing schemes require white-box access to the model's next-token probability distribution, which is typically not…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-24 Dara Bahri , John Wieting

LLMs now exhibit human-like skills in various fields, leading to worries about misuse. Thus, detecting generated text is crucial. However, passive detection methods are stuck in domain specificity and limited adversarial robustness. To…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-17 Xi Yang , Kejiang Chen , Weiming Zhang , Chang Liu , Yuang Qi , Jie Zhang , Han Fang , Nenghai Yu

Watermarking schemes for large language models (LLMs) have been proposed to identify the source of the generated text, mitigating the potential threats emerged from model theft. However, current watermarking solutions hardly resolve the…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-31 Haohua Duan , Liyao Xiang , Xin Zhang

Existing watermarking methods for large language models (LLMs) mainly embed watermark by adjusting the token sampling prediction or post-processing, lacking intrinsic coupling with LLMs, which may significantly reduce the semantic quality…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-17 Siyuan Bao , Ying Shi , Zhiguang Yang , Hanzhou Wu , Xinpeng Zhang

The most effective techniques to detect LLM-generated text rely on inserting a detectable signature -- or watermark -- during the model's decoding process. Most existing watermarking methods require access to the underlying LLM's logits,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-14 Yapei Chang , Kalpesh Krishna , Amir Houmansadr , John Wieting , Mohit Iyyer

Large Language Models (LLMs) are widely used in complex natural language processing tasks but raise privacy and security concerns due to the lack of identity recognition. This paper proposes a multi-party credible watermarking framework…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-09-17 Haoyu Jiang , Xuhong Wang , Ping Yi , Shanzhe Lei , Yilun Lin

This paper introduces a novel problem, distributional information embedding, motivated by the practical demands of multi-bit watermarking for large language models (LLMs). Unlike traditional information embedding, which embeds information…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-03 Haiyun He , Yepeng Liu , Ziqiao Wang , Yongyi Mao , Yuheng Bu

Watermarking has become a plausible candidate for ownership verification and intellectual property protection of deep neural networks. Regarding image classification neural networks, current watermarking schemes uniformly resort to backdoor…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-04-12 Fangqi Li , Shilin Wang

With the widespread adoption of open-source code language models (code LMs), intellectual property (IP) protection has become an increasingly critical concern. While current watermarking techniques have the potential to identify the code LM…

Programming Languages · Computer Science 2025-09-18 Boyu Zhang , Ping He , Tianyu Du , Xuhong Zhang , Lei Yun , Kingsum Chow , Jianwei Yin

Watermarking for large language models (LLMs) has emerged as an effective tool for distinguishing AI-generated text from human-written content. Statistically, watermark schemes induce dependence between generated tokens and a pseudo-random…

Methodology · Statistics 2026-04-13 Weijie Su , Ruodu Wang , Zinan Zhao

Watermarking is a technique that involves embedding nearly unnoticeable statistical signals within generated content to help trace its source. This work focuses on a scenario where an untrusted third-party user sends prompts to a trusted…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-29 Xingchi Li , Guanxun Li , Xianyang Zhang

As large language models (LLMs) generate texts with increasing fluency and realism, there is a growing need to identify the source of texts to prevent the abuse of LLMs. Text watermarking techniques have proven reliable in distinguishing…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-04 Lean Wang , Wenkai Yang , Deli Chen , Hao Zhou , Yankai Lin , Fandong Meng , Jie Zhou , Xu Sun

Due to the distributed nature of Federated Learning (FL) systems, each local client has access to the global model, which poses a critical risk of model leakage. Existing works have explored injecting watermarks into local models to enable…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Jiahao Xu , Rui Hu , Olivera Kotevska , Zikai Zhang

Watermarking has emerged as a prominent technique for LLM-generated content detection by embedding imperceptible patterns. Despite supreme performance, its robustness against adversarial attacks remains underexplored. Previous work…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-08 Baizhou Huang , Xiao Pu , Xiaojun Wan

We present a publicly-detectable watermarking scheme for LMs: the detection algorithm contains no secret information, and it is executable by anyone. We embed a publicly-verifiable cryptographic signature into LM output using rejection…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-07 Jaiden Fairoze , Sanjam Garg , Somesh Jha , Saeed Mahloujifar , Mohammad Mahmoody , Mingyuan Wang

Natural language processing (NLP) technology has shown great commercial value in applications such as sentiment analysis. But NLP models are vulnerable to the threat of pirated redistribution, damaging the economic interests of model…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2022-11-21 Long Dai , Jiarong Mao , Xuefeng Fan , Xiaoyi Zhou

Recent advances in Large Language Models (LLMs) have raised urgent concerns about LLM-generated text authenticity, prompting regulatory demands for reliable identification mechanisms. Although watermarking offers a promising solution,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-26 Xiaoyan Feng , He Zhang , Yanjun Zhang , Leo Yu Zhang , Shirui Pan

Federated Language Model (FedLM) allows a collaborative learning without sharing raw data, yet it introduces a critical vulnerability, as every untrustworthy client may leak the received functional model instance. Current watermarking…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-13 Haodong Zhao , Jinming Hu , Yijie Bai , Tian Dong , Wei Du , Zhuosheng Zhang , Yanjiao Chen , Haojin Zhu , Gongshen Liu

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly fine-tuned on smaller, domain-specific datasets to improve downstream performance. These datasets often contain proprietary or copyrighted material, raising the need for reliable safeguards…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-06 Jingqi Zhang , Ruibo Chen , Yingqing Yang , Peihua Mai , Heng Huang , Yan Pang
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