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Multi-instance learning (MIL) is an effective paradigm for whole-slide pathological images (WSIs) classification to handle the gigapixel resolution and slide-level label. Prevailing MIL methods primarily focus on improving the feature…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-14 Tiancheng Lin , Zhimiao Yu , Hongyu Hu , Yi Xu , Chang Wen Chen

In computational pathology, whole-slide image (WSI) classification presents a formidable challenge due to its gigapixel resolution and limited fine-grained annotations. Multiple-instance learning (MIL) offers a weakly supervised solution,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-09-06 Renao Yan , Qiehe Sun , Cheng Jin , Yiqing Liu , Yonghong He , Tian Guan , Hao Chen

Bag-based Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) approaches have emerged as the mainstream methodology for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification. However, most existing methods adopt a segmented training strategy, which first extracts features…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-13 Jiangping Wen , Jinyu Wen , Meie Fang

We address the challenging problem of whole slide image (WSI) classification. WSIs have very high resolutions and usually lack localized annotations. WSI classification can be cast as a multiple instance learning (MIL) problem when only…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-04-05 Bin Li , Yin Li , Kevin W. Eliceiri

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods have become increasingly popular for classifying giga-pixel sized Whole-Slide Images (WSIs) in digital pathology. Most MIL methods operate at a single WSI magnification, by processing all the tissue…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-27 Kevin Thandiackal , Boqi Chen , Pushpak Pati , Guillaume Jaume , Drew F. K. Williamson , Maria Gabrani , Orcun Goksel

Multi-instance learning (MIL) is widely used in the computer-aided interpretation of pathological Whole Slide Images (WSIs) to solve the lack of pixel-wise or patch-wise annotations. Often, this approach directly applies "natural image…

Whole-slide image (WSI) classification is a challenging task because 1) patches from WSI lack annotation, and 2) WSI possesses unnecessary variability, e.g., stain protocol. Recently, Multiple-Instance Learning (MIL) has made significant…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-08-12 Joohyung Lee , Heejeong Nam , Kwanhyung Lee , Sangchul Hahn

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has advanced WSI analysis but struggles with the complexity and heterogeneity of WSIs. Existing MIL methods face challenges in aggregating diverse patch information into robust WSI representations. While…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-28 Beidi Zhao , SangMook Kim , Hao Chen , Chen Zhou , Zu-hua Gao , Gang Wang , Xiaoxiao Li

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a variation of supervised learning where a single class label is assigned to a bag of instances. In this paper, we state the MIL problem as learning the Bernoulli distribution of the bag label where the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2018-06-29 Maximilian Ilse , Jakub M. Tomczak , Max Welling

Weakly Supervised Video Anomaly Detection (WSVAD) is challenging because the binary anomaly label is only given on the video level, but the output requires snippet-level predictions. So, Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is prevailing in…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-23 Hui Lv , Zhongqi Yue , Qianru Sun , Bin Luo , Zhen Cui , Hanwang Zhang

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has been widely used in weakly supervised whole slide image (WSI) classification. Typical MIL methods include a feature embedding part, which embeds the instances into features via a pre-trained feature…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-02 Peijie Qiu , Pan Xiao , Wenhui Zhu , Yalin Wang , Aristeidis Sotiras

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) methods have succeeded remarkably in histopathology whole slide image (WSI) analysis. However, most MIL models only offer attention-based explanations that do not faithfully capture the model's decision…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-17 Susu Sun , Dominique van Midden , Geert Litjens , Christian F. Baumgartner

Digital pathology has revolutionized the field by enabling the digitization of tissue samples into whole slide images (WSIs). However, the high resolution and large size of WSIs present significant challenges when it comes to applying Deep…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-03 Ali Mammadov , Loïc Le Folgoc , Guillaume Hocquet , Pietro Gori

Interpreting machine learning model decisions is crucial for high-risk applications like healthcare. In digital pathology, large whole slide images (WSIs) are decomposed into smaller tiles and tile-derived features are processed by…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-07-03 Tomé Albuquerque , Anil Yüce , Markus D. Herrmann , Alvaro Gomariz

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has been increasingly used in the classification of histopathology whole slide images (WSIs). However, MIL approaches for this specific classification problem still face unique challenges, particularly those…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-03-24 Hongrun Zhang , Yanda Meng , Yitian Zhao , Yihong Qiao , Xiaoyun Yang , Sarah E. Coupland , Yalin Zheng

Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification relies on Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) with spatial patch features, yet existing methods struggle to capture global dependencies due to the immense size of WSIs and the local nature of patch…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-10-22 Anthony Bilic , Guangyu Sun , Ming Li , Md Sanzid Bin Hossain , Yu Tian , Wei Zhang , Laura Brattain , Dexter Hadley , Chen Chen

In computational pathology, weak supervision has become the standard for deep learning due to the gigapixel scale of WSIs and the scarcity of pixel-level annotations, with Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) established as the principal…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-17 Andreas Lolos , Theofilos Christodoulou , Aris L. Moustakas , Stergios Christodoulidis , Maria Vakalopoulou

Whole slide images (WSIs) are gigapixel-scale digital images of H\&E-stained tissue samples widely used in pathology. The substantial size and complexity of WSIs pose unique analytical challenges. Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-20 Jun Wang , Yu Mao , Nan Guan , Chun Jason Xue

Detecting anomalies over real-world datasets remains a challenging task. Data annotation is an intensive human labor problem, particularly in sequential datasets, where the start and end time of anomalies are not known. As a result, data…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-05 Parastoo Kamranfar , David Lattanzi , Amarda Shehu , Daniel Barbará

Due to the lack of fine-grained annotation guidance, current Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) struggles to establish a robust causal relationship between Whole Slide Image (WSI) diagnosis and evidence sub-images, just like fully supervised…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-08 Tianhang Nan , Yong Ding , Hao Quan , Deliang Li , Lisha Li , Guanghong Zhao , Xiaoyu Cui