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Large Language Model (LLM) agents increasingly use external tools for complex tasks and rely on embedding-based retrieval to select a small top-k subset for reasoning. As these systems scale, the robustness of this retrieval stage is…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-17 Hussein Jawad , Nicolas J-B Brunel

As Large Language Models (LLMs) evolve from passive text generators to active reasoning agents capable of interacting with external tools, the Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as a key standardized framework for dynamic tool…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-10-14 Xuanqi Gao , Siyi Xie , Juan Zhai , Shiqing Ma , Chao Shen

Tool-using LLM agents produce trajectories whose calls form a directed dependency graph: earlier tool outputs supply arguments to later calls. Whether this execution structure is represented inside the model is unknown; prior structural…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Tianda Sun , Dimitar Kazakov

Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) and the introduction of the Model Context Protocol (MCP) have significantly expanded LLM agents' capability to interact dynamically with external tools and APIs. However, existing tool…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-13 Elias Lumer , Anmol Gulati , Vamse Kumar Subbiah , Pradeep Honaganahalli Basavaraju , James A. Burke

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as a standardized interface enabling seamless integration between Large Language Models (LLMs) and external data sources and tools. While MCP significantly reduces development complexity and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-29 Bin Wang , Zexin Liu , Hao Yu , Ao Yang , Yenan Huang , Jing Guo , Huangsheng Cheng , Hui Li , Huiyu Wu

Information seeking is a fundamental requirement for humans. However, existing LLM agents rely heavily on open-web search, which exposes two fundamental weaknesses: online content is noisy and unreliable, and many real-world tasks require…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-07 Yaxin Du , Yuanshuo Zhang , Xiyuan Yang , Yifan Zhou , Cheng Wang , Gongyi Zou , Xianghe Pang , Wenhao Wang , Menglan Chen , Shuo Tang , Zhiyu Li , Feiyu Xiong , Siheng Chen

We introduce ETOM, a five-level benchmark for evaluating multi-hop, end-to-end tool orchestration by LLM agents within a hierarchical Model-Context Protocol (MCP) ecosystem. Existing benchmarks often assess tools in isolation, overlooking…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Jia-Kai Dong , I-Wei Huang , Chun-Tin Wu , Yi-Tien Tsai

Agent tools are becoming a core interface through which LLM agents access external data, services, and execution environments. As these tools are distributed through public marketplaces, raw tool counts may substantially overstate ecosystem…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Taein Kim , David Jiang , Yuepeng Hu , Yuqi Jia , Neil Gong

Autonomous AI agents powered by large language models (LLMs) with structured function-calling interfaces enable real-time data retrieval, computation, and multi-step orchestration. However, the rapid growth of plugins, connectors, and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-16 Mohamed Amine Ferrag , Norbert Tihanyi , Djallel Hamouda , Leandros Maglaras , Abderrahmane Lakas , Merouane Debbah

Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as a standard interface for connecting LLM agents to external tools. Because MCP servers expose privileged operations such as shell execution, network access, and file-system manipulation to…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-21 Pengyu Sun , Qishu Jin , Enhao Huang , Zifeng Kang , Xin Liu , Dakun Shen , Song Li

Binary vulnerability analysis is increasingly performed by LLM-based agents in an iterative, multi-pass manner, with the model as the core decision-maker. However, how such systems organize exploration over hundreds of reasoning steps…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-03-20 Qiang Li , XiangRui Zhang , Haining Wang

Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex reasoning and decision-making by leveraging external tools. However, this tool-centric paradigm introduces a previously underexplored attack surface,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-01-08 Kanghua Mo , Li Hu , Yucheng Long , Zhihao Li

Eliciting reasoning has emerged as a powerful technique for improving the performance of large language models (LLMs) on complex tasks by inducing thinking. However, their effectiveness in realistic user-engaged agent scenarios remains…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Jiatong Li , Changdae Oh , Hyeong Kyu Choi , Jindong Wang , Sharon Li

Scaling test-time compute through extended chains of thought has become a dominant paradigm for improving large language model reasoning. However, existing research implicitly assumes that longer thinking always yields better results. This…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Shu Zhou , Rui Ling , Junan Chen , Xin Wang , Tao Fan , Hao Wang

Recent advances in Chain-of-Thought (CoT) prompting have substantially improved the reasoning capabilities of large language models (LLMs), but have also introduced their computational efficiency as a new attack surface. In this paper, we…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-11-17 Shuaitong Liu , Renjue Li , Lijia Yu , Lijun Zhang , Zhiming Liu , Gaojie Jin

LLM-based coding agents extend their capabilities via third-party agent skills distributed through open marketplaces without mandatory security review. Unlike traditional packages, these skills are executed as operational directives with…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-06 Yubin Qu , Yi Liu , Tongcheng Geng , Gelei Deng , Yuekang Li , Leo Yu Zhang , Ying Zhang , Lei Ma

To reduce development overhead and enable seamless integration between potential components comprising any given generative AI application, the Model Context Protocol (MCP) (Anthropic, 2024) has recently been released and subsequently…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-04-14 Brandon Radosevich , John Halloran

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) represents a significant advancement in AI-tool integration, enabling seamless communication between AI agents and external services. However, this connectivity introduces novel attack vectors that remain…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-29 Nicola Croce , Tobin South

The remarkable capability of large language models (LLMs) has led to the wide application of LLM-based agents in various domains. To standardize interactions between LLM-based agents and their environments, model context protocol (MCP)…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-09-26 Ping He , Changjiang Li , Binbin Zhao , Tianyu Du , Shouling Ji

LLM-powered coding agents increasingly rely on tool-use protocols such as the Model Context Protocol (MCP) to read and write files on a developer's workstation. When a write fails - due to content filters, truncation, or an interrupted…

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