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Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved significant success across a wide range of domains, however, most existing methods are formulated in discrete time. In this work, we introduce a novel RL method for continuous-time control, where…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-21 Chengxiu Hua , Jiawen Gu , Yushun Tang

The Bellman equation and its continuous form, the Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman equation, are ubiquitous in reinforcement learning and control theory. However, these equations become intractable for high-dimensional or nonlinear systems. This…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Preston Rozwood , Edward Mehrez , Ludger Paehler , Wen Sun , Steven L. Brunton

In this paper, we present a novel method for computing the optimal feedback gain of the infinite-horizon Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) problem via an ordinary differential equation. We introduce a novel continuous-time Bellman error,…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2026-04-17 Armin Gießler , Albertus Johannes Malan , Sören Hohmann

This paper proposes a novel approach for Asset-Liability Management (ALM) by employing continuous-time Reinforcement Learning (RL) with a linear-quadratic (LQ) formulation that incorporates both interim and terminal objectives. We develop a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Yilie Huang

Value function based reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms, for example, $Q$-learning, learn optimal policies from datasets of actions, rewards, and state transitions. However, when the underlying state transition dynamics are stochastic…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-29 Udari Madhushani , Biswadip Dey , Naomi Ehrich Leonard , Amit Chakraborty

Actor-critic Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithms have achieved impressive performance in continuous control tasks. However, they still suffer two nontrivial obstacles, i.e., low sample efficiency and overestimation bias. To this end, we…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-10 Qing Li , Wengang Zhou , Zhenbo Lu , Houqiang Li

We study off-policy reinforcement learning for controlling continuous-time Markov diffusion processes with discrete-time observations and actions. We consider model-free algorithms with function approximation that learn value and advantage…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-17 Wenlong Mou

For continuous systems modeled by dynamical equations such as ODEs and SDEs, Bellman's Principle of Optimality takes the form of the Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) equation, which provides the theoretical target of reinforcement learning…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-28 Haruki Settai , Naoya Takeishi , Takehisa Yairi

This paper applies a reinforcement learning (RL) method to solve infinite horizon continuous-time stochastic linear quadratic problems, where drift and diffusion terms in the dynamics may depend on both the state and control. Based on…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2021-09-17 Na Li , Xun Li , Jing Peng , Zuo Quan Xu

This paper studies the continuous-time reinforcement learning (RL) for optimal switching problems across multiple regimes. We consider a type of exploratory formulation under entropy regularization where the agent randomizes both the timing…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2025-12-23 Yijie Huang , Mengge Li , Xiang Yu , Zhou Zhou

We study the problem of computing the value function from a discretely-observed trajectory of a continuous-time diffusion process. We develop a new class of algorithms based on easily implementable numerical schemes that are compatible with…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-07-09 Wenlong Mou , Yuhua Zhu

We study the continuous-time counterpart of Q-learning for reinforcement learning (RL) under the entropy-regularized, exploratory diffusion process formulation introduced by Wang et al. (2020). As the conventional (big) Q-function collapses…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-07 Yanwei Jia , Xun Yu Zhou

Convex Q-learning is a recent approach to reinforcement learning, motivated by the possibility of a firmer theory for convergence, and the possibility of making use of greater a priori knowledge regarding policy or value function structure.…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2022-10-18 Fan Lu , Joel Mathias , Sean Meyn , Karanjit Kalsi

Commonly in reinforcement learning (RL), rewards are discounted over time using an exponential function to model time preference, thereby bounding the expected long-term reward. In contrast, in economics and psychology, it has been shown…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-12-08 Matthias Schultheis , Constantin A. Rothkopf , Heinz Koeppl

Existing reinforcement learning (RL) methods struggle with complex dynamical systems that demand interactions at high frequencies or irregular time intervals. Continuous-time RL (CTRL) has emerged as a promising alternative by replacing…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-20 Xuefeng Wang , Lei Zhang , Henglin Pu , Ahmed H. Qureshi , Husheng Li

For continuous action spaces, actor-critic methods are widely used in online reinforcement learning (RL). However, unlike RL algorithms for discrete actions, which generally model the optimal value function using the Bellman optimality…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-08-14 Motoki Omura , Kazuki Ota , Takayuki Osa , Yusuke Mukuta , Tatsuya Harada

In this paper, we propose Q-learning algorithms for continuous-time deterministic optimal control problems with Lipschitz continuous controls. Our method is based on a new class of Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (HJB) equations derived from…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-28 Jeongho Kim , Jaeuk Shin , Insoon Yang

This paper establishes a rigorous connection between regularized discrete-time reinforcement learning (RL) and continuous-time stochastic optimal control. Specifically, classical RL algorithms are typically solving a regularized…

Optimization and Control · Mathematics 2026-04-24 Huyên Pham , Yuming Paul Zhang , Yuhua Zhu

We propose Q-learning with Adjoint Matching (QAM), a novel TD-based reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm that tackles a long-standing challenge in continuous-action RL: efficient optimization of an expressive diffusion or flow-matching…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Qiyang Li , Sergey Levine

This paper considers the problem of solving constrained reinforcement learning (RL) problems with anytime guarantees, meaning that the algorithmic solution must yield a constraint-satisfying policy at every iteration of its evolution. Our…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-10-03 Pol Mestres , Arnau Marzabal , Jorge Cortés
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