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The prevalence and impact of toxic discussions online have made content moderation crucial.Automated systems can play a vital role in identifying toxicity, and reducing the reliance on human moderation.Nevertheless, identifying toxic…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-11-02 Senjuti Dutta , Sid Mittal , Sherol Chen , Deepak Ramachandran , Ravi Rajakumar , Ian Kivlichan , Sunny Mak , Alena Butryna , Praveen Paritosh

It is common practice in text classification to only use one majority label for model training even if a dataset has been annotated by multiple annotators. Doing so can remove valuable nuances and diverse perspectives inherent in the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-09-27 Jin Xu , Mariët Theune , Daniel Braun

Linguistic bias in online news and social media is widespread but difficult to measure. Yet, its identification and quantification remain difficult due to subjectivity, context dependence, and the scarcity of high-quality gold-label…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-12-17 Fabian Haak , Philipp Schaer

Online abusive behavior is an important issue that breaks the cohesiveness of online social communities and even raises public safety concerns in our societies. Motivated by this rising issue, researchers have proposed, collected, and…

Social and Information Networks · Computer Science 2020-06-25 Md Rabiul Awal , Rui Cao , Roy Ka-Wei Lee , Sandra Mitrović

This study uses the cosine similarity ratio, embedding regression, and manual re-annotation to diagnose hate speech classification. We begin by computing cosine similarity ratio on a dataset "Measuring Hate Speech" that contains 135,556…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-27 Xilin Yang

In NLP annotation, it is common to have multiple annotators label the text and then obtain the ground truth labels based on the agreement of major annotators. However, annotators are individuals with different backgrounds, and minors'…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-01-13 Ruyuan Wan , Jaehyung Kim , Dongyeop Kang

Identifying hate speech content in the Arabic language is challenging due to the rich quality of dialectal variations. This study introduces a multilabel hate speech dataset in the Arabic language. We have collected 10000 Arabic tweets and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-26 Wajdi Zaghouani , Md. Rafiul Biswas

Sentiment analysis is often a crowdsourcing task prone to subjective labels given by many annotators. It is not yet fully understood how the annotation bias of each annotator can be modeled correctly with state-of-the-art methods. However,…

Current multimodal toxicity benchmarks typically use a single binary hatefulness label. This coarse approach conflates two fundamentally different characteristics of expression: tone and content. Drawing on communication science theory, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-25 Nils A. Herrmann , Tobias Eder , Jingyi He , Georg Groh

In this paper, we investigate how personalising Large Language Models (Persona-LLMs) with annotator personas affects their sensitivity to hate speech, particularly regarding biases linked to shared or differing identities between annotators…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-23 Ewelina Gajewska , Arda Derbent , Jaroslaw A Chudziak , Katarzyna Budzynska

Natural language processing research has begun to embrace the notion of annotator subjectivity, motivated by variations in labelling. This approach understands each annotator's view as valid, which can be highly suitable for tasks that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Amanda Cercas Curry , Gavin Abercrombie , Zeerak Talat

Crowdsourcing has been the prevalent paradigm for creating natural language understanding datasets in recent years. A common crowdsourcing practice is to recruit a small number of high-quality workers, and have them massively generate…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-08-29 Mor Geva , Yoav Goldberg , Jonathan Berant

Crowdsourcing has emerged as a popular approach for collecting annotated data to train supervised machine learning models. However, annotator bias can lead to defective annotations. Though there are a few works investigating individual…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2021-10-18 Haochen Liu , Joseph Thekinen , Sinem Mollaoglu , Da Tang , Ji Yang , Youlong Cheng , Hui Liu , Jiliang Tang

Sentiment analysis and opinion mining is an important task with obvious application areas in social media, e.g. when indicating hate speech and fake news. In our survey of previous work, we note that there is no large-scale social media…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-12-07 Krister Lindén , Tommi Jauhiainen , Sam Hardwick

With the growing prevalence of large language models, it is increasingly common to annotate datasets for machine learning using pools of crowd raters. However, these raters often work in isolation as individual crowdworkers. In this work,…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2024-08-05 Sonja Schmer-Galunder , Ruta Wheelock , Scott Friedman , Alyssa Chvasta , Zaria Jalan , Emily Saltz

Incorporating every annotator's perspective is crucial for unbiased data modeling. Annotator fatigue and changing opinions over time can distort dataset annotations. To combat this, we propose to learn a more accurate representation of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-05 Uthman Jinadu , Yi Ding

When training data are collected from human annotators, the design of the annotation instrument, the instructions given to annotators, the characteristics of the annotators, and their interactions can impact training data. This study…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-01-23 Christoph Kern , Stephanie Eckman , Jacob Beck , Rob Chew , Bolei Ma , Frauke Kreuter

Hate speech spreads widely online, harming individuals and communities, making automatic detection essential for large-scale moderation, yet detecting it remains difficult. Part of the challenge lies in subjectivity: what one person flags…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-11 Paloma Piot , David Otero , Patricia Martín-Rodilla , Javier Parapar

Crowdsourced annotations of data play a substantial role in the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI). It is broadly recognised that annotations of text data can contain annotator bias, where systematic disagreement in annotations can…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-22 Terne Sasha Thorn Jakobsen , Andreas Bjerre-Nielsen , Robert Böhm