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In this paper, we study the problem of watermarking large language models (LLMs). We consider the trade-off between model distortion and detection ability and formulate it as a constrained optimization problem based on the red-green list…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-08 Zhongze Cai , Shang Liu , Hanzhao Wang , Huaiyang Zhong , Xiaocheng Li

The Large Language Model (LLM) watermark is a newly emerging technique that shows promise in addressing concerns surrounding LLM copyright, monitoring AI-generated text, and preventing its misuse. The LLM watermark scheme commonly includes…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-05-31 Zhaoxi Zhang , Xiaomei Zhang , Yanjun Zhang , Leo Yu Zhang , Chao Chen , Shengshan Hu , Asif Gill , Shirui Pan

The growing deployment of Large Language Models (LLMs) has raised concerns about their misuse in generating harmful or deceptive content. To address this issue, watermarking methods have been proposed to embed identifiable multi-bit…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Jiahao Xu , Rui Hu , Olivera Kotevska , Zikai Zhang

The task of discerning between generated and natural texts is increasingly challenging. In this context, watermarking emerges as a promising technique for ascribing generated text to a specific model. It alters the sampling generation…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-09 Pierre Fernandez , Antoine Chaffin , Karim Tit , Vivien Chappelier , Teddy Furon

Watermarking language models is essential for distinguishing between human and machine-generated text and thus maintaining the integrity and trustworthiness of digital communication. We present a novel green/red list watermarking approach…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-06-13 Yangxinyu Xie , Xiang Li , Tanwi Mallick , Weijie J. Su , Ruixun Zhang

The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) has raised concerns regarding their potential misuse, particularly in generating fake news and misinformation. To address these risks, watermarking techniques for autoregressive language…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-24 Koichi Nagatsuka , Terufumi Morishita , Yasuhiro Sogawa

As large language models (LLMs) reach human-like fluency, reliably distinguishing AI-generated text from human authorship becomes increasingly difficult. While watermarks already exist for LLMs, they often lack flexibility and struggle with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Georg Niess , Roman Kern

The indistinguishability of large language model (LLM) output from human-authored content poses significant challenges, raising concerns about potential misuse of AI-generated text and its influence on future model training. Watermarking…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-16 Alexander Nemecek , Yuzhou Jiang , Erman Ayday

As large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed for text generation, watermarking has become essential for authorship attribution, intellectual property protection, and misuse detection. While existing watermarking methods perform…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-09 Amit Bin Tariqul , A N M Zahid Hossain Milkan , Sahab-Al-Chowdhury , Syed Rifat Raiyan , Hasan Mahmud , Md Kamrul Hasan

With the widespread adoption of Large Language Models (LLMs), concerns about potential misuse have emerged. To this end, watermarking has been adapted to LLM, enabling a simple and effective way to detect and monitor generated text.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-07-22 Duy C. Hoang , Hung T. Q. Le , Rui Chu , Ping Li , Weijie Zhao , Yingjie Lao , Khoa D. Doan

The rapid growth of Large Language Models (LLMs) raises concerns about distinguishing AI-generated text from human content. Existing watermarking techniques, like \kgw, struggle with low watermark strength and stringent false-positive…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-22 Zhuang Li , Qiuping Yi , Zongcheng Ji , Yijian Lu , Yanqi Li , Keyang Xiao , Hongliang Liang

Large language models (LLMs) are pre-trained and post-trained on vast amounts of loosely curated data, raising the possibility that these models may have been trained on proprietary datasets or the same benchmarks used for evaluation. This…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Pengrun Huang , Kamalika Chaudhuri , Yu-Xiang Wang

Watermarking is a technique that involves embedding nearly unnoticeable statistical signals within generated content to help trace its source. This work focuses on a scenario where an untrusted third-party user sends prompts to a trusted…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-29 Xingchi Li , Guanxun Li , Xianyang Zhang

As Large Language Models (LLMs) become increasingly sophisticated, they raise significant security concerns, including the creation of fake news and academic misuse. Most detectors for identifying model-generated text are limited by their…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-10-10 Zhenyu Xu , Victor S. Sheng

LLMs now exhibit human-like skills in various fields, leading to worries about misuse. Thus, detecting generated text is crucial. However, passive detection methods are stuck in domain specificity and limited adversarial robustness. To…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-17 Xi Yang , Kejiang Chen , Weiming Zhang , Chang Liu , Yuang Qi , Jie Zhang , Han Fang , Nenghai Yu

Text watermarks in large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used to detect synthetic text, mitigating misuse cases like fake news and academic dishonesty. While existing watermarking detection techniques primarily focus on classifying…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-13 Xuandong Zhao , Chenwen Liao , Yu-Xiang Wang , Lei Li

As large language models (LLMs) grow more powerful, concerns over copyright infringement of LLM-generated texts have intensified. LLM watermarking has been proposed to trace unauthorized redistribution or resale of generated content by…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-08-05 Qihao Lin , Chen Tang , Lan zhang , Junyang zhang , Xiangyang Li

Detecting whether copyright holders' works were used in LLM pretraining is poised to be an important problem. This work proposes using data watermarks to enable principled detection with only black-box model access, provided that the…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-08-20 Johnny Tian-Zheng Wei , Ryan Yixiang Wang , Robin Jia

Digital watermarking is a promising solution for mitigating some of the risks arising from the misuse of automatically generated text. These approaches either embed non-specific watermarks to allow for the detection of any text generated by…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-23 Zihao Fu , Chris Russell

In this paper, we investigate the recent state-of-the-art schemes for watermarking large language models (LLMs) outputs. These techniques are claimed to be robust, scalable and production-grade, aimed at promoting responsible usage of LLMs.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Jonathan Hong Jin Ng , Anh Tu Ngo , Anupam Chattopadhyay
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