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Counterfactual explanations (CFE) for deep image classifiers aim to reveal how minimal input changes lead to different model decisions, providing critical insights for model interpretation and improvement. However, existing CFE methods…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-23 Townim Faisal Chowdhury , Vu Minh Hieu Phan , Kewen Liao , Nanyu Dong , Minh-Son To , Anton Hengel , Johan Verjans , Zhibin Liao

Recourse generators provide actionable insights, often through feature-based counterfactual explanations (CFEs), to help negatively classified individuals understand how to adjust their input features to achieve a positive classification.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-04 Keziah Naggita , Matthew R. Walter , Avrim Blum

We present a new method for counterfactual explanations (CFEs) based on Bayesian optimisation that applies to both classification and regression models. Our method is a globally convergent search algorithm with support for arbitrary…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-30 Thomas Spooner , Danial Dervovic , Jason Long , Jon Shepard , Jiahao Chen , Daniele Magazzeni

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) guide users on how to adjust inputs to machine learning models to achieve desired outputs. While existing research primarily addresses static scenarios, real-world applications often involve data or model…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Ignacy Stępka , Mateusz Lango , Jerzy Stefanowski

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) are an emerging technique under the umbrella of interpretability of machine learning (ML) models. They provide ``what if'' feedback of the form ``if an input datapoint were $x'$ instead of $x$, then an ML…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-16 Sahil Verma , John Dickerson , Keegan Hines

Counterfactual Explanations (CFEs) interpret machine learning models by identifying the smallest change to input features needed to change the model's prediction to a desired output. For classification tasks, CFEs determine how close a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-01 Margarita A. Guerrero , Cristian R. Rojas

Visual counterfactual explanation (CF) methods modify image concepts, e.g, shape, to change a prediction to a predefined outcome while closely resembling the original query image. Unlike self-explainable models (SEMs) and heatmap…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-09-20 Anselm Haselhoff , Kevin Trelenberg , Fabian Küppers , Jonas Schneider

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) exemplify how to minimally modify a feature vector to achieve a different prediction for an instance. CFEs can enhance informational fairness and trustworthiness, and provide suggestions for users who…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-12 Yongjie Wang , Hangwei Qian , Yongjie Liu , Wei Guo , Chunyan Miao

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) are a popular approach in explainable artificial intelligence (xAI), highlighting changes to input data necessary for altering a model's output. A CFE can either describe a scenario that is better than the…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-10-26 Ulrike Kuhl , André Artelt , Barbara Hammer

Despite their high accuracies, modern complex image classifiers cannot be trusted for sensitive tasks due to their unknown decision-making process and potential biases. Counterfactual explanations are very effective in providing…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-06-13 Kamran Alipour , Aditya Lahiri , Ehsan Adeli , Babak Salimi , Michael Pazzani

Machine learning (ML) methods have experienced significant growth in the past decade, yet their practical application in high-impact real-world domains has been hindered by their opacity. When ML methods are responsible for making critical…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-07-11 Xiangyu Sun , Raquel Aoki , Kevin H. Wilson

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) provide human-centric interpretability by identifying the minimal, actionable changes required to alter a machine learning model's prediction. Therefore, CFs can be used as (i) interventions for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Shovito Barua Soumma , Asiful Arefeen , Stephanie M. Carpenter , Melanie Hingle , Hassan Ghasemzadeh

Counterfactual examples are widely used in natural language processing (NLP) as valuable data to improve models, and in explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) to understand model behavior. The automated generation of counterfactual…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-29 Qianli Wang , Nils Feldhus , Simon Ostermann , Luis Felipe Villa-Arenas , Sebastian Möller , Vera Schmitt

Visual counterfactual explanations identify modifications to an image that would change the prediction of a classifier. We propose a set of techniques based on generative models (VAE) and a classifier ensemble directly trained in the latent…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-11-29 Claire Theobald , Frédéric Pennerath , Brieuc Conan-Guez , Miguel Couceiro , Amedeo Napoli

Visual counterfactual explainers (VCEs) are a straightforward and promising approach to enhancing the transparency of image classifiers. VCEs complement other types of explanations, such as feature attribution, by revealing the specific…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Sidney Bender , Jan Herrmann , Klaus-Robert Müller , Grégoire Montavon

Visual counterfactual explanations are ideal hypothetical images that change the decision-making of the classifier with high confidence toward the desired class while remaining visually plausible and close to the initial image. In this…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-04-15 Tung Luu , Nam Le , Duc Le , Bac Le

This study addresses generating counterfactual explanations with multimodal information. Our goal is not only to classify a video into a specific category, but also to provide explanations on why it is not categorized to a specific class…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-05-21 Atsushi Kanehira , Kentaro Takemoto , Sho Inayoshi , Tatsuya Harada

Deep learning models in computer vision have made remarkable progress, but their lack of transparency and interpretability remains a challenge. The development of explainable AI can enhance the understanding and performance of these models.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-01-14 Bismillah Khan , Syed Ali Tariq , Tehseen Zia , Muhammad Ahsan , David Windridge

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) provide actionable recourse, but most methods assume a static framework with fixed data and a trained classifier. This assumption breaks in evolving data environments, such as data streams, where online…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Marcin Kostrzewa , Jerzy Stefanowski , Maciej Zięba

Counterfactual explanations (CFs) provide human-interpretable insights into model's predictions by identifying minimal changes to input features that would alter the model's output. However, existing methods struggle to generate multiple…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-20 Oleksii Furman , Patryk Marszałek , Jan Masłowski , Piotr Gaiński , Maciej Zięba , Marek Śmieja
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