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For reinforcement learning systems to be widely adopted, their users must understand and trust them. We present a theoretical analysis of explaining reinforcement learning using Shapley values, following a principled approach from game…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-12 Daniel Beechey , Thomas M. S. Smith , Özgür Şimşek

Reinforcement learning agents can achieve super-human performance in complex decision-making tasks, but their behaviour is often difficult to understand and explain. This lack of explanation limits deployment, especially in safety-critical…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-08-01 Daniel Beechey , Thomas M. S. Smith , Özgür Şimşek

This paper introduces a novel approach Counterfactual Shapley Values (CSV), which enhances explainability in reinforcement learning (RL) by integrating counterfactual analysis with Shapley Values. The approach aims to quantify and compare…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-08-07 Yiwei Shi , Qi Zhang , Kevin McAreavey , Weiru Liu

Deep reinforcement learning (RL) has shown remarkable success in complex domains, however, the inherent black box nature of deep neural network policies raises significant challenges in understanding and trusting the decision-making…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-20 Peilang Li , Umer Siddique , Yongcan Cao

While Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is increasingly expanding more areas of application, little has been applied to make deep Reinforcement Learning (RL) more comprehensible. As RL becomes ubiquitous and used in critical and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-10-05 Alexandre Heuillet , Fabien Couthouis , Natalia Díaz-Rodríguez

The value and copyright of training data are crucial in the artificial intelligence industry. Service platforms should protect data providers' legitimate rights and fairly reward them for their contributions. Shapley value, a potent tool…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-21 Haifeng Sun , Yu Xiong , Runze Wu , Xinyu Cai , Changjie Fan , Lan Zhang , Xiang-Yang Li

Shapley values are widely used to explain black-box models, but they are costly to calculate because they require many model evaluations. We introduce FastSHAP, a method for estimating Shapley values in a single forward pass using a learned…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-03-24 Neil Jethani , Mukund Sudarshan , Ian Covert , Su-In Lee , Rajesh Ranganath

Designing fair compensation mechanisms for demand response (DR) is challenging. This paper models the problem in a game theoretic setting and designs a payment distribution mechanism based on the Shapley Value. As exact computation of the…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2014-03-27 Gearóid O'Brien , Abbas El Gamal , Ram Rajagopal

Data valuation has found various applications in machine learning, such as data filtering, efficient learning and incentives for data sharing. The most popular current approach to data valuation is the Shapley value. While popular for its…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-10 Lauren Watson , Zeno Kujawa , Rayna Andreeva , Hao-Tsung Yang , Tariq Elahi , Rik Sarkar

Training action space selection for reinforcement learning (RL) is conflict-prone due to complex state-action relationships. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a Shapley-inspired methodology for training action space…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-04-11 Rajat Ghosh , Debojyoti Dutta

This work focuses on developing efficient post-hoc explanations for quantum AI algorithms. In classical contexts, the cooperative game theory concept of the Shapley value adapts naturally to post-hoc explanations, where it can be used to…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-04-18 Iain Burge , Michel Barbeau , Joaquin Garcia-Alfaro

A number of techniques have been proposed to explain a machine learning model's prediction by attributing it to the corresponding input features. Popular among these are techniques that apply the Shapley value method from cooperative game…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-06-29 Luke Merrick , Ankur Taly

Explaining the predictions of opaque machine learning algorithms is an important and challenging task, especially as complex models are increasingly used to assist in high-stakes decisions such as those arising in healthcare and finance.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-06-29 David S. Watson

Explaining AI systems is fundamental both to the development of high performing models and to the trust placed in them by their users. The Shapley framework for explainability has strength in its general applicability combined with its…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2021-12-21 Christopher Frye , Colin Rowat , Ilya Feige

The Shapley value, which is arguably the most popular approach for assigning a meaningful contribution value to players in a cooperative game, has recently been used intensively in explainable artificial intelligence. Its meaningfulness is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-01-31 Patrick Kolpaczki , Viktor Bengs , Maximilian Muschalik , Eyke Hüllermeier

The problem of explaining the behavior of deep neural networks has recently gained a lot of attention. While several attribution methods have been proposed, most come without strong theoretical foundations, which raises questions about…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-06-24 Marco Ancona , Cengiz Öztireli , Markus Gross

In the field of safe reinforcement learning (RL), finding a balance between satisfying safety constraints and optimizing reward performance presents a significant challenge. A key obstacle in this endeavor is the estimation of safety…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-14 Zhepeng Cen , Yihang Yao , Zuxin Liu , Ding Zhao

Numerous offline and model-based reinforcement learning systems incorporate world models to emulate the inherent environments. A world model is particularly important in scenarios where direct interactions with the real environment is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-19 Rajat Ghosh , Debojyoti Dutta

Reinforcement learning has become a powerful paradigm for improving the capability of intelligent systems, but its practical deployment faces two central challenges. First, reinforcement learning must scale efficiently in distributed…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Guangchen Lan

Reinforcement learning (RL) systems can be complex and non-interpretable, making it challenging for non-AI experts to understand or intervene in their decisions. This is due in part to the sequential nature of RL in which actions are chosen…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-04-16 Amal Alabdulkarim , Madhuri Singh , Gennie Mansi , Kaely Hall , Upol Ehsan , Mark O. Riedl
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