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Educational systems often assume learners can identify their knowledge gaps, yet research consistently shows that students struggle to recognize what they don't know they need to learn-the "unknown unknowns" problem. This paper presents a…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2025-09-10 Jinwen Tang , Qiming Guo , Zhicheng Tang , Yi Shang

In educational applications, Knowledge Tracing (KT), the problem of accurately predicting students' responses to future questions by summarizing their knowledge states, has been widely studied for decades as it is considered a fundamental…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2021-05-14 Yuhao Zhou , Xihua Li , Yunbo Cao , Xuemin Zhao , Qing Ye , Jiancheng Lv

Pretrained language models have led to significant performance gains in many NLP tasks. However, the intensive computing resources to train such models remain an issue. Knowledge distillation alleviates this problem by learning a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2020-05-04 Linqing Liu , Huan Wang , Jimmy Lin , Richard Socher , Caiming Xiong

The emerging collaborative information-based knowledge tracing (KT) has been a promising way to enhance modeling of learners' knowledge states. The core idea is to extract the collaborative information from interaction sequences of other…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Yuhao Jia , Duantengchuan Li , Jinsong Chen , Zhongjie Mao , Mingwen Tong , Yue Li , Xiaoguang Wang

Knowledge Tracing (KT) predicts future performance by modeling students' historical interactions, and understanding students' affective states can enhance the effectiveness of KT, thereby improving the quality of education. Although…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2025-02-18 Xinjie Sun , Kai Zhang , Qi Liu , Shuanghong Shen , Fei Wang , Yuxiang Guo , Enhong Chen

Educational Question Generation (EQG) aims to synthesize customized exercise questions that enhance student learning. An effective EQG system should ideally personalize questions for each student by modeling the student's knowledge state…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2026-05-28 Xinyi Gao , Qiucheng Wu , Lu Ding , Q. Vera Liao , Kaizhi Qian , Ying Xu , Shiyu Chang , Yang Zhang

For offering proactive services to students in intelligent education, one of the fundamental tasks is predicting their performance (e.g., scores) on future exercises, where it is necessary to track each student's knowledge acquisition…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2019-06-14 Qi Liu , Zhenya Huang , Yu Yin , Enhong Chen , Hui Xiong , Yu Su , Guoping Hu

Student simulation presents a transformative approach to enhance learning outcomes, advance educational research, and ultimately shape the future of effective pedagogy. We explore the feasibility of using large language models (LLMs), a…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-10-31 Songlin Xu , Xinyu Zhang

Knowledge Tracing (KT) has been an established problem in the educational data mining field for decades, and it is commonly assumed that the underlying learning process being modeled remains static. Given the ever-changing landscape of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-05 Morgan Lee , Artem Frenk , Eamon Worden , Karish Gupta , Thinh Pham , Ethan Croteau , Neil Heffernan

Knowledge tracing (KT) which aims at predicting learner's knowledge mastery plays an important role in the computer-aided educational system. In recent years, many deep learning models have been applied to tackle the KT task, which have…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2022-08-30 Hanshuang Tong , Zhen Wang , Yun Zhou , Shiwei Tong , Wenyuan Han , Qi Liu

Transformers replace recurrence with a memory that grows with sequence length and self-attention that enables ad-hoc lookups over past tokens. Consequently, they lack an inherent incentive to compress history into compact latent states with…

As the core of the Knowledge Tracking (KT) task, assessing students' dynamic mastery of knowledge concepts is crucial for both offline teaching and online educational applications. Since students' mastery of knowledge concepts is often…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-09-06 Moyu Zhang , Xinning Zhu , Chunhong Zhang , Wenchen Qian , Feng Pan , Hui Zhao

Knowledge tracing aims to model students' past answer sequences to track the change in their knowledge acquisition during exercise activities and to predict their future learning performance. Most existing approaches ignore the fact that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-07 Yuqi Yue , Xiaoqing Sun , Weidong Ji , Zengxiang Yin , Chenghong Sun

Intelligent tutoring systems optimize the selection and timing of learning materials to enhance understanding and long-term retention. This requires estimates of both the learner's progress (''knowledge tracing''; KT), and the prerequisite…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-21 Hanqi Zhou , Robert Bamler , Charley M. Wu , Álvaro Tejero-Cantero

Knowledge components (KCs) mapped to problems help model student learning, tracking their mastery levels on fine-grained skills thereby facilitating personalized learning and feedback in online learning platforms. However, crafting and…

Multi-token prediction (MTP) is a recently proposed pre-training objective for language models. Rather than predicting only the next token (NTP), MTP predicts the next $k$ tokens at each prediction step, using multiple prediction heads. MTP…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-30 Ansar Aynetdinov , Alan Akbik

Knowledge tracing is the task of predicting a learner's future performance based on the history of the learner's performance. Current knowledge tracing models are built based on an extensive set of data that are collected from multiple…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2022-01-19 Sujanya Suresh , Savitha Ramasamy , P. N. Suganthan , Cheryl Sze Yin Wong

In Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS), tracing the student's knowledge state during learning has been studied for several decades in order to provide more supportive learning instructions. In this paper, we propose a novel model for…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-01-08 Sein Minn , Yi Yu , Michel C. Desmarais , Feida Zhu , Jill Jenn Vie

The 2017 ASSISTments Data Mining competition aims to use data from a longitudinal study for predicting a brand-new outcome of students which had never been studied before by the educational data mining research community. Specifically, it…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2018-06-11 Chun-kit Yeung , Zizheng Lin , Kai Yang , Dit-yan Yeung

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved impressive performance across diverse tasks but continue to struggle with learning transitive relations, a cornerstone for complex planning. To address this issue, we investigate the Multi-Token…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Qimin Zhong , Hao Liao , Siwei Wang , Mingyang Zhou , Xiaoqun Wu , Rui Mao , Wei Chen