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This paper presents a novel evaluation framework for Out-of-Distribution (OOD) detection that aims to assess the performance of machine learning models in more realistic settings. We observed that the real-world requirements for testing OOD…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-09-01 Vahid Reza Khazaie , Anthony Wong , Mohammad Sabokrou

Deep learning has achieved tremendous success with independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) data. However, the performance of neural networks often degenerates drastically when encountering out-of-distribution (OoD) data, i.e., when…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-04-01 Nanyang Ye , Kaican Li , Haoyue Bai , Runpeng Yu , Lanqing Hong , Fengwei Zhou , Zhenguo Li , Jun Zhu

We study the problem of Out-of-Distribution (OOD) detection, that is, detecting whether a learning algorithm's output can be trusted at inference time. While a number of tests for OOD detection have been proposed in prior work, a formal…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-09-19 Akshayaa Magesh , Venugopal V. Veeravalli , Anirban Roy , Susmit Jha

Deep neural networks are increasingly used in a wide range of technologies and services, but remain highly susceptible to out-of-distribution (OOD) samples, that is, drawn from a different distribution than the original training set. A…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-17 Pietro Recalcati , Fabio Garcea , Luca Piano , Fabrizio Lamberti , Lia Morra

Out-of-Distribution (OOD) generalization, a cornerstone for building robust machine learning models capable of handling data diverging from the training set's distribution, is an ongoing challenge in deep learning. While significant…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-05 Sergey Kolesnikov

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is a task that detects OOD samples during inference to ensure the safety of deployed models. However, conventional benchmarks have reached performance saturation, making it difficult to compare recent OOD…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-05-30 Shiho Noda , Atsuyuki Miyai , Qing Yu , Go Irie , Kiyoharu Aizawa

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is vital to safety-critical machine learning applications and has thus been extensively studied, with a plethora of methods developed in the literature. However, the field currently lacks a unified,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-10-14 Jingkang Yang , Pengyun Wang , Dejian Zou , Zitang Zhou , Kunyuan Ding , Wenxuan Peng , Haoqi Wang , Guangyao Chen , Bo Li , Yiyou Sun , Xuefeng Du , Kaiyang Zhou , Wayne Zhang , Dan Hendrycks , Yixuan Li , Ziwei Liu

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection aims to detect test samples outside the training category space, which is an essential component in building reliable machine learning systems. Existing reviews on OOD detection primarily focus on method…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-08-05 Shuo Lu , Yingsheng Wang , Lijun Sheng , Lingxiao He , Aihua Zheng , Jian Liang

Machine learning models, while progressively advanced, rely heavily on the IID assumption, which is often unfulfilled in practice due to inevitable distribution shifts. This renders them susceptible and untrustworthy for deployment in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Han Yu , Jiashuo Liu , Xingxuan Zhang , Jiayun Wu , Peng Cui

Existing Visual-Language Models (VLMs) have achieved significant progress by being trained on massive-scale datasets, typically under the assumption that data are independent and identically distributed (IID). However, in real-world…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-23 Ling Lin , Yang Bai , Heng Su , Congcong Zhu , Yaoxing Wang , Yang Zhou , Huazhu Fu , Jingrun Chen

Despite their success, Machine Learning (ML) models do not generalize effectively to data not originating from the training distribution. To reliably employ ML models in real-world healthcare systems and avoid inaccurate predictions on…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-29 Mohammad Azizmalayeri , Ameen Abu-Hanna , Giovanni Ciná

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is important for deploying machine learning models in the real world, where test data from shifted distributions can naturally arise. While a plethora of algorithmic approaches have recently emerged for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-03 Peyman Morteza , Yixuan Li

It is crucial to detect when an instance lies downright too far from the training samples for the machine learning model to be trusted, a challenge known as out-of-distribution (OOD) detection. For neural networks, one approach to this task…

We study the problem of out-of-distribution dynamics (OODD) detection, which involves detecting when the dynamics of a temporal process change compared to the training-distribution dynamics. This is relevant to applications in control,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-25 Mohamad H Danesh , Alan Fern

Image classification models deployed in the real world may receive inputs outside the intended data distribution. For critical applications such as clinical decision making, it is important that a model can detect such out-of-distribution…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-07-07 Christoph Berger , Magdalini Paschali , Ben Glocker , Konstantinos Kamnitsas

Applying machine learning to increasingly high-dimensional problems with sparse or biased training data increases the risk that a model is used on inputs outside its training domain. For such out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs, the model can…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-03-10 Juniper Tyree , Andreas Rupp , Petri S. Clusius , Michael H. Boy

Out-of-Distribution (OOD) detection, i.e., identifying whether an input is sampled from a novel distribution other than the training distribution, is a critical task for safely deploying machine learning systems in the open world. Recently,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-01-13 Feng Xue , Zi He , Chuanlong Xie , Falong Tan , Zhenguo Li

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is crucial for deploying robust and reliable machine-learning systems in open-world settings. Despite steady advances in OOD detectors, their interplay with modern training pipelines that maximize…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-01-19 Gerhard Krumpl , Henning Avenhaus , Horst Possegger

The usage of deep neural networks in safety-critical systems is limited by our ability to guarantee their correct behavior. Runtime monitors are components aiming to identify unsafe predictions and discard them before they can lead to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-01-16 Joris Guérin , Kevin Delmas , Raul Sena Ferreira , Jérémie Guiochet

It is an important problem in trustworthy machine learning to recognize out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs which are inputs unrelated to the in-distribution task. Many out-of-distribution detection methods have been suggested in recent years.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-06-22 Julian Bitterwolf , Alexander Meinke , Maximilian Augustin , Matthias Hein
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