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Many existing interpretation methods are based on Partial Dependence (PD) functions that, for a pre-trained machine learning model, capture how a subset of the features affects the predictions by averaging over the remaining features.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-05 Jinyang Liu , Tessa Steensgaard , Marvin N. Wright , Niklas Pfister , Munir Hiabu

Ensembles improve prediction performance and allow uncertainty quantification by aggregating predictions from multiple models. In deep ensembling, the individual models are usually black box neural networks, or recently, partially…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-05-26 Lucas Kook , Andrea Götschi , Philipp FM Baumann , Torsten Hothorn , Beate Sick

This paper describes a generalization of previous methods for constructing tree-structured belief network with hidden variables. The major new feature of the described method is the ability to produce a tree decomposition even when there…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2013-04-05 L. Liu , Y. Ma , D. Wilkins , Z. Bian , X. Ying

Interpretability of learning algorithms is crucial for applications involving critical decisions, and variable importance is one of the main interpretation tools. Shapley effects are now widely used to interpret both tree ensembles and…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-02-03 Clément Bénard , Gérard Biau , Sébastien da Veiga , Erwan Scornet

Decision-tree ensembles are a cornerstone of predictive modeling, and SHAP is a standard framework for interpreting their predictions. Among its variants, Background SHAP offers high accuracy by modeling missing features using a background…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Ron Wettenstein , Alexander Nadel , Udi Boker

Ensembles of decision trees perform well on many problems, but are not interpretable. In contrast to existing approaches in interpretability that focus on explaining relationships between features and predictions, we propose an alternative…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2020-08-26 Sarah Tan , Matvey Soloviev , Giles Hooker , Martin T. Wells

Tree ensembles, such as random forests and boosted trees, are renowned for their high prediction performance. However, their interpretability is critically limited due to the enormous complexity. In this study, we present a method to make a…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2017-03-01 Satoshi Hara , Kohei Hayashi

Towards a future where machine learning systems will integrate into every aspect of people's lives, researching methods to interpret such systems is necessary, instead of focusing exclusively on enhancing their performance. Enriching the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-21 Ioannis Mollas , Nick Bassiliades , Ioannis Vlahavas , Grigorios Tsoumakas

Decision tree ensembles are widely used and competitive learning models. Despite their success, popular toolkits for learning tree ensembles have limited modeling capabilities. For instance, these toolkits support a limited number of loss…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-20 Shibal Ibrahim , Hussein Hazimeh , Rahul Mazumder

While shallow decision trees may be interpretable, larger ensemble models like gradient-boosted trees, which often set the state of the art in machine learning problems involving tabular data, still remain black box models. As a remedy, the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-21 Maximilian Muschalik , Fabian Fumagalli , Barbara Hammer , Eyke Hüllermeier

Hoeffding trees are the state-of-the-art methods in decision tree learning for evolving data streams. These very fast decision trees are used in many real applications where data is created in real-time due to their efficiency. In this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-10-19 Chaitanya Manapragada , Geoffrey I Webb , Mahsa Salehi , Albert Bifet

Without unrealistic continuity and smoothness assumptions on a distributional density of one dimensional dataset, constructing an authentic possibly-gapped histogram becomes rather complex. The candidate ensemble is described via a…

Methodology · Statistics 2017-11-15 Fushing Hsieh , Tania Roy

Tree ensembles (TEs) find a multitude of practical applications. They represent one of the most general and accurate classes of machine learning methods. While they are typically quite concise in representation, their operation remains…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-01 Yacine Izza , Alexey Ignatiev , Xuanxiang Huang , Peter J. Stuckey , Joao Marques-Silva

Real-world observational datasets and machine learning have revolutionized data-driven decision-making, yet many models rely on empirical associations that may be misleading due to confounding and subgroup heterogeneity. Simpson's paradox…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-03 Xian Teng , Yu-Ru Lin

Due to their power and ease of use, tree-based machine learning models, such as random forests and gradient-boosted tree ensembles, have become very popular. To interpret them, local feature attributions based on marginal expectations, e.g.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-09 Khashayar Filom , Alexey Miroshnikov , Konstandinos Kotsiopoulos , Arjun Ravi Kannan

Hash codes are a very efficient data representation needed to be able to cope with the ever growing amounts of data. We introduce a random forest semantic hashing scheme with information-theoretic code aggregation, showing for the first…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2015-04-20 Qiang Qiu , Guillermo Sapiro , Alex Bronstein

Within the domain of medical image analysis, three distinct methodologies have demonstrated commendable accuracy: Neural Networks, Decision Trees, and Ensemble-Based Learning Algorithms, particularly in the specialized context of genstro…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-10-14 Zeshan Khan

The tree-based ensembles are known for their outstanding performance in classification and regression problems characterized by feature vectors represented by mixed-type variables from various ranges and domains. However, considering…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-16 Patryk Wielopolski , Maciej Zięba

Neural networks and tree ensembles are state-of-the-art learners, each with its unique statistical and computational advantages. We aim to combine these advantages by introducing a new layer for neural networks, composed of an ensemble of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-07-14 Hussein Hazimeh , Natalia Ponomareva , Petros Mol , Zhenyu Tan , Rahul Mazumder

Despite their remarkable effectiveness and broad application, the drivers of success underlying ensembles of trees are still not fully understood. In this paper, we highlight how interpreting tree ensembles as adaptive and self-regularizing…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-02-05 Alicia Curth , Alan Jeffares , Mihaela van der Schaar