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Cross-lingual transfer has become an effective way of transferring knowledge between languages. In this paper, we explore an often overlooked aspect in this domain: the influence of the source language of a language model on language…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-08 Wondimagegnhue Tsegaye Tufa , Ilia Markov , Piek Vossen

Tokenization is a fundamental component of language models for code. It involves breaking down the input into units that are later passed to the language model stack to learn high-dimensional representations used in various contexts, from…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-07-22 Mootez Saad , Hao Li , Tushar Sharma , Ahmed E. Hassan

Large Language Models (LLMs) are widely deployed in real-world applications, yet little is known about their training dynamics at the token level. Evaluation typically relies on aggregated training loss, measured at the batch level, which…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-17 Andrea Pinto , Tomer Galanti , Randall Balestriero

Large language models (LLMs) reason over discrete token ID sequences, yet modern subword tokenizers routinely produce non-unique encodings: multiple token ID sequences can detokenize to identical surface strings. This representational…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-22 Navid Ayoobi , Marcus I Armstrong , Arjun Mukherjee

Multimodal large language models (MLLMs) have shown remarkable performance for cross-modal understanding and generation, yet still suffer from severe inference costs. Recently, abundant works have been proposed to solve this problem with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-30 Zichen Wen , Yifeng Gao , Weijia Li , Conghui He , Linfeng Zhang

Language models perform differently across languages. It has been previously suggested that morphological typology may explain some of this variability (Cotterell et al., 2018). We replicate previous analyses and find additional new…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-22 Catherine Arnett , Benjamin K. Bergen

Multilinguality is crucial for extending recent advancements in language modelling to diverse linguistic communities. To maintain high performance while representing multiple languages, multilingual models ideally align representations,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-18 Anton Schäfer , Shauli Ravfogel , Thomas Hofmann , Tiago Pimentel , Imanol Schlag

Tokenization inefficiency imposes structural disadvantages on morphologically complex, low-resource languages, inflating compute resources and depressing accuracy. We evaluate 10 large language models (LLMs) on AfriMMLU (9,000 MCQA items; 5…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-25 Jessica M. Lundin , Ada Zhang , Nihal Karim , Hamza Louzan , Victor Wei , David Adelani , Cody Carroll

Recent research has highlighted the importance of dataset size in scaling language models. However, large language models (LLMs) are notoriously token-hungry during pre-training, and high-quality text data on the web is approaching its…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-10 Fuzhao Xue , Yao Fu , Wangchunshu Zhou , Zangwei Zheng , Yang You

Adapting language models to new data distributions by simple finetuning is challenging. This is due to the rigidity of their subword tokenizers, which typically remain unchanged during adaptation. This inflexibility often leads to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-14 Abraham Toluwase Owodunni , Orevaoghene Ahia , Sachin Kumar

Morphology is a crucial factor for multilingual language modeling as it poses direct challenges for tokenization. Here, we seek to understand how tokenization influences the morphological knowledge encoded in multilingual language models.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-23 Thao Anh Dang , Limor Raviv , Lukas Galke

The speech tokenizer plays a crucial role in recent speech tasks, generally serving as a bridge between speech signals and language models. While low-frame-rate codecs are widely employed as speech tokenizers, the impact of frame rates on…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-16 Haoyang Zhang , Hexin Liu , Xiangyu Zhang , Qiquan Zhang , Yuchen Hu , Junqi Zhao , Fei Tian , Xuerui Yang , Leibny Paola Garcia , Eng Siong Chng

Subword tokenization methods, such as Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE), significantly impact the performance and efficiency of large language models (LLMs). The standard approach involves training a general-purpose tokenizer that uniformly…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-30 Vijini Liyanage , François Yvon

The zero-shot cross-lingual ability of models pretrained on multilingual and even monolingual corpora has spurred many hypotheses to explain this intriguing empirical result. However, due to the costs of pretraining, most research uses…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-09-28 Hugo Abonizio , Leandro Rodrigues de Souza , Roberto Lotufo , Rodrigo Nogueira

Language models have graduated from being research prototypes to commercialized products offered as web APIs, and recent works have highlighted the multilingual capabilities of these products. The API vendors charge their users based on…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-24 Orevaoghene Ahia , Sachin Kumar , Hila Gonen , Jungo Kasai , David R. Mortensen , Noah A. Smith , Yulia Tsvetkov

Multilingual language models often perform unevenly across different languages due to limited generalization capabilities for some languages. This issue is significant because of the growing interest in making universal language models that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-11 Gürkan Soykan , Gözde Gül Şahin

With large language models (LLMs) now performing strongly across diverse tasks, there is growing demand for them to personalize outputs for individual users. Personalization is typically framed as an additional layer on top of a base NLP…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-10 Chenheng Zhang , Yijun Lu , Lizhe Fang , Chunyuan Zheng , Jiajun Chai , Xiaohan Wang , Guojun Yin , Wei Lin , Yisen Wang , Zhouchen Lin

Multilingual language models are widely used to extend NLP systems to low-resource languages. However, concrete evidence for the effects of multilinguality on language modeling performance in individual languages remains scarce. Here, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-16 Tyler A. Chang , Catherine Arnett , Zhuowen Tu , Benjamin K. Bergen

Recent studies show that in supervised fine-tuning (SFT) of large language models (LLMs), data quality matters more than quantity. While most data cleaning methods concentrate on filtering entire samples, the quality of individual tokens…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-12 Jinlong Pang , Na Di , Zhaowei Zhu , Jiaheng Wei , Hao Cheng , Chen Qian , Yang Liu

Tokens are the basic units of Large Language Models (LLMs). LLMs rely on tokenizers to segment text into these tokens, and tokenization is the primary determinant of computational and inference cost. Sanskrit, one of the oldest languages,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Anshul Kumar