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Large language models (LLMs) increasingly reach real-world applications, necessitating a better understanding of their behaviour. Their size and complexity complicate traditional assessment methods, causing the emergence of alternative…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-05-13 Sanne Peereboom , Inga Schwabe , Bennett Kleinberg

As Large Language Models (LLMs) achieve remarkable breakthroughs, aligning their values with humans has become imperative for their responsible development and customized applications. However, there still lack evaluations of LLMs values…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-06-03 Jing Yao , Xiaoyuan Yi , Shitong Duan , Jindong Wang , Yuzhuo Bai , Muhua Huang , Peng Zhang , Tun Lu , Zhicheng Dou , Maosong Sun , Xing Xie

We propose the Data Contamination Quiz (DCQ), a simple and effective approach to detect data contamination in large language models (LLMs) and estimate the amount of it. Specifically, we frame data contamination detection as a series of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-29 Shahriar Golchin , Mihai Surdeanu

In this article we explore the application of Large Language Models (LLMs) in assessing the content validity of psychometric instruments, focusing on the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ) and Big Five Inventory (BFI). Content validity, a…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2025-03-18 Nicola Milano , Michela Ponticorvo , Davide Marocco

Hampering the interpretation of benchmark scores, evaluation data contamination has become a growing concern in the evaluation of LLMs, and an active area of research studies its effects. While evaluation data contamination is easily…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-07 Aaditya K. Singh , Muhammed Yusuf Kocyigit , Andrew Poulton , David Esiobu , Maria Lomeli , Gergely Szilvasy , Dieuwke Hupkes

While many have shown how Large Language Models (LLMs) can be applied to a diverse set of tasks, the critical issues of data contamination and memorization are often glossed over. In this work, we address this concern for tabular data.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-12 Sebastian Bordt , Harsha Nori , Rich Caruana

The leakage of benchmark data into the training data has emerged as a significant challenge for evaluating the capabilities of large language models (LLMs). In this work, we challenge the common assumption that small-scale contamination…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-17 Sebastian Bordt , Suraj Srinivas , Valentyn Boreiko , Ulrike von Luxburg

Large Language Models (LLMs) are known to memorize portions of their training data, sometimes even reproduce content verbatim when prompted appropriately. Despite substantial interest, existing LLM memorization research has offered limited…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Yizhan Huang , Zhe Yang , Meifang Chen , Huang Nianchen , Jianping Zhang , Michael R. Lyu

Large language models (LLMs) have been proven capable of memorizing their training data, which can be extracted through specifically designed prompts. As the scale of datasets continues to grow, privacy risks arising from memorization have…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-11-07 Zhenhong Zhou , Jiuyang Xiang , Chaomeng Chen , Sen Su

While recent research increasingly showcases the remarkable capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs), it is equally crucial to examine their associated risks. Among these, privacy and security vulnerabilities are particularly…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Ali Satvaty , Suzan Verberne , Fatih Turkmen

Recent observations have underscored a disparity between the inflated benchmark scores and the actual performance of LLMs, raising concerns about potential contamination of evaluation benchmarks. This issue is especially critical for…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-05 Chunyuan Deng , Yilun Zhao , Xiangru Tang , Mark Gerstein , Arman Cohan

Standardized and quantified evaluation of machine behaviors is a crux of understanding LLMs. In this study, we draw inspiration from psychometric studies by leveraging human personality theory as a tool for studying machine behaviors.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-31 Guangyuan Jiang , Manjie Xu , Song-Chun Zhu , Wenjuan Han , Chi Zhang , Yixin Zhu

The importance of benchmarks for assessing the values of language models has been pronounced due to the growing need of more authentic, human-aligned responses. However, existing benchmarks rely on human or machine annotations that are…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-12 Jongwook Han , Dongmin Choi , Woojung Song , Eun-Ju Lee , Yohan Jo

Data contamination has garnered increased attention in the era of large language models (LLMs) due to the reliance on extensive internet-derived training corpora. The issue of training corpus overlap with evaluation benchmarks--referred to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-24 Chunyuan Deng , Yilun Zhao , Yuzhao Heng , Yitong Li , Jiannan Cao , Xiangru Tang , Arman Cohan

While large language models have achieved remarkable performance on various code generation benchmarks, there have been growing concerns regarding potential contamination of these benchmarks as they may be leaked into pretraining and…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-03-11 Martin Riddell , Ansong Ni , Arman Cohan

Large language models (LLMs) have shown potential in recommendation systems (RecSys) by using them as either knowledge enhancer or zero-shot ranker. A key challenge lies in the large semantic gap between LLMs and RecSys where the former…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-12-22 Guangneng Hu

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across a wide range of tasks, yet they also exhibit memorization of their training data. This phenomenon raises critical questions about model behavior, privacy risks,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-15 Alexander Xiong , Xuandong Zhao , Aneesh Pappu , Dawn Song

Data contamination, i.e., the presence of test data from downstream tasks in the training data of large language models (LLMs), is a potential major issue in measuring LLMs' real effectiveness on other tasks. We propose a straightforward…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-02-23 Shahriar Golchin , Mihai Surdeanu

Self-assessment is a key aspect of reliable intelligence, yet evaluations of large language models (LLMs) focus mainly on task accuracy. We adapted the 10-item General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES) to elicit simulated self-assessments from ten…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-11-27 Daniel I Jackson , Emma L Jensen , Syed-Amad Hussain , Emre Sezgin

Data contamination poses a significant threat to the reliable evaluation of Large Language Models (LLMs). This issue arises when benchmark samples may inadvertently appear in training sets, compromising the validity of reported performance.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-19 Yongding Tao , Tian Wang , Yihong Dong , Huanyu Liu , Kechi Zhang , Xiaolong Hu , Ge Li