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Large language models (LLMs) are stochastic, and not all models give deterministic answers, even when setting temperature to zero with a fixed random seed. However, few benchmark studies attempt to quantify uncertainty, partly due to the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-30 Robert E. Blackwell , Jon Barry , Anthony G. Cohn

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used to simulate survey responses, but synthetic data can be misaligned with the human population, leading to unreliable inference. We develop a general framework that converts LLM-simulated…

Methodology · Statistics 2026-05-21 Chengpiao Huang , Yuhang Wu , Kaizheng Wang

Language Models (LMs) have shown impressive performance in various natural language tasks. However, when it comes to natural language reasoning, LMs still face challenges such as hallucination, generating incorrect intermediate reasoning…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-10-20 Deepak Nathani , David Wang , Liangming Pan , William Yang Wang

Large language models (LLMs) have shown strong results on a range of applications, including regression and scoring tasks. Typically, one obtains outputs from an LLM via autoregressive sampling from the model's output distribution. We show…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-04 Michal Lukasik , Harikrishna Narasimhan , Aditya Krishna Menon , Felix Yu , Sanjiv Kumar

This paper considers the challenges Large Language Models (LLMs) face when reasoning over text that includes information involving uncertainty explicitly quantified via probability values. This type of reasoning is relevant to a variety of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-12-30 Aliakbar Nafar , Kristen Brent Venable , Parisa Kordjamshidi

Generating and voting multiple answers is an effective method to mitigate reasoning inconsistencies of large language models (LLMs). Prior works have shown that multiple reasoning formats outperform a single format when generating multiple…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-01 Dingzirui Wang , Xuanliang Zhang , Rongyu Cao , Longxu Dou , Xianzhen Luo , Yingwei Ma , Qingfu Zhu , Wanxiang Che , Binhua Li , Fei Huang , Yongbin Li

Large language models (LLMs) have been widely used for problem-solving tasks. Most recent work improves their performance through supervised fine-tuning (SFT) with labeled data or reinforcement learning (RL) from task feedback. In this…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-29 Hang Li , Kaiqi Yang , Yucheng Chu , Hui Liu , Jiliang Tang

The rapid rise of large language models (LLMs) is reshaping the landscape of automatic assessment in education. While these systems demonstrate substantial advantages in adaptability to diverse question types and flexibility in output…

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated strong reasoning capabilities across various tasks. However, even minor variations in query phrasing, despite preserving the underlying semantic meaning, can significantly affect their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-26 Yihang Yao , Zhepeng Cen , Miao Li , William Han , Yuyou Zhang , Emerson Liu , Zuxin Liu , Chuang Gan , Ding Zhao

Large Language Models (LLMs) are rapidly evolving and impacting various fields, necessitating the development of effective methods to evaluate and compare their performance. Most current approaches for performance evaluation are either…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Behrad Moniri , Hamed Hassani , Edgar Dobriban

Large Language Models (LLMs) are commonly used in Question Answering (QA) settings, increasingly in the natural sciences if not science at large. Reliable Uncertainty Quantification (UQ) is critical for the trustworthy uptake of generated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Philip Müller , Nicholas Popovič , Michael Färber , Peter Steinbach

Reliable Large Language Models (LLMs) should abstain when confidence is insufficient. However, prior studies often treat refusal as a generic "I don't know'', failing to distinguish input-level ambiguity (data uncertainty) from capability…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Jingyi Ren , Ante Wang , Yunghwei Lai , Xiaolong Wang , Linlu Gong , Weitao Li , Weizhi Ma , Yang Liu

Reliability of LLMs is questionable even as they get better at more tasks. A wider adoption of LLMs is contingent on whether they are usably factual. And if they are not, on whether they can properly calibrate their confidence in their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-01 Sharad Duwal

Offline evaluation of search systems depends on test collections. These benchmarks provide the researchers with a corpus of documents, topics and relevance judgements indicating which documents are relevant for each topic. While test…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-07-23 David Otero , Javier Parapar , Álvaro Barreiro

Large Language Models (LLMs) are transforming scholarly tasks like search and summarization, but their reliability remains uncertain. Current evaluation metrics for testing LLM reliability are primarily automated approaches that prioritize…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2026-02-25 Anna Martin-Boyle , William Humphreys , Martha Brown , Cara Leckey , Harmanpreet Kaur

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have significantly improved code generation and program comprehension, accelerating the evolution of software engineering. Current methods primarily enhance model performance by leveraging…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-04 Weijie Lyu , Sheng-Jun Huang , Xuan Xia

This paper systematically compares different methods of deriving item-level predictions of language models for multiple-choice tasks. It compares scoring methods for answer options based on free generation of responses, various…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Polina Tsvilodub , Hening Wang , Sharon Grosch , Michael Franke

Large Language Models (LLMs) hold significant promise for mathematics education, yet they often struggle with complex mathematical reasoning. While Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) mitigates these issues by grounding LLMs in external…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-02 Shiting Chen , Zijian Zhao , Jinsong Chen

Large Language Models (LLMs) excel at many tasks but still struggle with a critical ability for LLM-based agents: asking good questions for resolving ambiguity in user requests. While prior work has explored information-seeking behavior…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-27 Daniel M. Pedrozo , Telma W. de L. Soares , Bryan L. M. de Oliveira

Despite the rapid expansion of Large Language Models (LLMs) in healthcare, robust and explainable evaluation of their ability to assess clinical trial reporting according to CONSORT standards remains an open challenge. In particular,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-26 Sohyeon Jeon , Hyung-Chul Lee
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