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Counterfactual explanations (CEs) are advocated as being ideally suited to providing algorithmic recourse for subjects affected by the predictions of machine learning models. While CEs can be beneficial to affected individuals, recent work…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-06 Junqi Jiang , Francesco Leofante , Antonio Rago , Francesca Toni

Counterfactual Explanations (CEs) help address the question: How can the factors that influence the prediction of a predictive model be changed to achieve a more favorable outcome from a user's perspective? Thus, they bear the potential to…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-27 Xuan Zhao , Klaus Broelemann , Gjergji Kasneci

Counterfactual explanation is a form of interpretable machine learning that generates perturbations on a sample to achieve the desired outcome. The generated samples can act as instructions to guide end users on how to observe the desired…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-28 Tri Dung Duong , Qian Li , Guandong Xu

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) are a powerful means for understanding how decisions made by algorithms can be changed. Researchers have proposed a number of desiderata that CEs should meet to be practically useful, such as requiring…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-09-26 Marco Virgolin , Saverio Fracaros

Counterfactual explanations (CFE) for deep image classifiers aim to reveal how minimal input changes lead to different model decisions, providing critical insights for model interpretation and improvement. However, existing CFE methods…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-23 Townim Faisal Chowdhury , Vu Minh Hieu Phan , Kewen Liao , Nanyu Dong , Minh-Son To , Anton Hengel , Johan Verjans , Zhibin Liao

Recourse generators provide actionable insights, often through feature-based counterfactual explanations (CFEs), to help negatively classified individuals understand how to adjust their input features to achieve a positive classification.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-04 Keziah Naggita , Matthew R. Walter , Avrim Blum

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) aim to enhance the interpretability of machine learning models by illustrating how alterations in input features would affect the resulting predictions. Common CE approaches require an additional model and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-10-02 Matan Atad , David Schinz , Hendrik Moeller , Robert Graf , Benedikt Wiestler , Daniel Rueckert , Nassir Navab , Jan S. Kirschke , Matthias Keicher

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) provide human-centric interpretability by identifying the minimal, actionable changes required to alter a machine learning model's prediction. Therefore, CFs can be used as (i) interventions for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Shovito Barua Soumma , Asiful Arefeen , Stephanie M. Carpenter , Melanie Hingle , Hassan Ghasemzadeh

The imminent need to interpret the output of a Machine Learning model with counterfactual (CF) explanations - via small perturbations to the input - has been notable in the research community. Although the variety of CF examples is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-23 Kleopatra Markou , Dimitrios Tomaras , Vana Kalogeraki , Dimitrios Gunopulos

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) offer a tangible and actionable way to explain recommendations by showing users a "what-if" scenario that demonstrates how small changes in their history would alter the system's output. However, existing…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-08-13 Arjan Hasami , Masoud Mansoury

Counterfactual explanations (CE) are the de facto method for providing insights into black-box decision-making models by identifying alternative inputs that lead to different outcomes. However, existing CE approaches, including group and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-03-13 Lei You , Lele Cao , Mattias Nilsson , Bo Zhao , Lei Lei

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) are a popular approach in explainable artificial intelligence (xAI), highlighting changes to input data necessary for altering a model's output. A CFE can either describe a scenario that is better than the…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-10-26 Ulrike Kuhl , André Artelt , Barbara Hammer

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) offer interpretable insights into machine learning predictions by answering ``what if?" questions. However, in real-world settings where models are frequently updated, existing counterfactual explanations…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-12 Jamie Duell , Xiuyi Fan

Currently, machine learning is widely used across various domains, including time series data analysis. However, some machine learning models function as black boxes, making interpretability a critical concern. One approach to address this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-01 Keita Kinjo

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) enhance the interpretability of machine learning models by describing what changes to an input are necessary to change its prediction to a desired class. These explanations are commonly used to guide users'…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-07 Anna P. Meyer , Yuhao Zhang , Aws Albarghouthi , Loris D'Antoni

Work in Counterfactual Explanations tends to focus on the principle of "the closest possible world" that identifies small changes leading to the desired outcome. In this paper we argue that while this approach might initially seem…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-02-25 Rafael Poyiadzi , Kacper Sokol , Raul Santos-Rodriguez , Tijl De Bie , Peter Flach

We introduce MCCE: Monte Carlo sampling of valid and realistic Counterfactual Explanations for tabular data, a novel counterfactual explanation method that generates on-manifold, actionable and valid counterfactuals by modeling the joint…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2024-01-26 Annabelle Redelmeier , Martin Jullum , Kjersti Aas , Anders Løland

Counterfactual Explanations are becoming a de-facto standard in post-hoc interpretable machine learning. For a given classifier and an instance classified in an undesired class, its counterfactual explanation corresponds to small…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-01-17 Veronica Piccialli , Dolores Romero Morales , Cecilia Salvatore

Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) has become increasingly important in decision-critical domains such as healthcare, finance, and law. Counterfactual (CF) explanations, a key approach in XAI, provide users with actionable insights…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-07-22 Volkan Bakir , Polat Goktas , Sureyya Akyuz

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) highlight what changes to a model's input would have changed its prediction in a particular way. CFEs have gained considerable traction as a psychologically grounded solution for explainable artificial…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-03-24 Ulrike Kuhl , André Artelt , Barbara Hammer