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Whole-slide image (WSI) classification in computational pathology is commonly formulated as slide-level Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) with a single global bag representation. However, slide-level MIL is fundamentally underconstrained:…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-04-15 Syed Fahim Ahmed , Gnanesh Rasineni , Florian Koehler , Abu Zahid Bin Aziz , Mei Wang , Attila Gyulassy , Brian Summa , J. Quincy Brown , Valerio Pascucci , Shireen Y. Elhabian

Whole Slide Image (WSI) analysis is a powerful method to facilitate the diagnosis of cancer in tissue samples. Automating this diagnosis poses various issues, most notably caused by the immense image resolution and limited annotations. WSIs…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-04-19 Ahmet Gokberk Gul , Oezdemir Cetin , Christoph Reich , Tim Prangemeier , Nadine Flinner , Heinz Koeppl

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has emerged as a popular method for classifying histopathology whole slide images (WSIs). However, existing approaches typically rely on pre-trained models from large natural image datasets, such as…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-24 Yi Lin , Zhongchen Zhao , Zhengjie ZHU , Lisheng Wang , Kwang-Ting Cheng , Hao Chen

Multiple-instance Learning (MIL) is commonly used to undertake computational pathology (CPath) tasks, and the use of multi-scale patches allows diverse features across scales to be learned. Previous studies using multi-scale features in…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-02-03 Shuyang Wu , Yifu Qiu , Ines P. Nearchou , Sandrine Prost , Jonathan A Fallowfield , Hakan Bilen , Timothy J Kendall

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has been widely used in weakly supervised whole slide image (WSI) classification. Typical MIL methods include a feature embedding part, which embeds the instances into features via a pre-trained feature…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-02 Peijie Qiu , Pan Xiao , Wenhui Zhu , Yalin Wang , Aristeidis Sotiras

In digital pathology, the multiple instance learning (MIL) strategy is widely used in the weakly supervised histopathology whole slide image (WSI) classification task where giga-pixel WSIs are only labeled at the slide level. However,…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-03-28 Zhan Shi , Jingwei Zhang , Jun Kong , Fusheng Wang

The emergence of foundation models in computational pathology has transformed histopathological image analysis, with whole slide imaging (WSI) diagnosis being a core application. Traditionally, weakly supervised fine-tuning via multiple…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-03 Jiawen Li , Jiali Hu , Qiehe Sun , Renao Yan , Minxi Ouyang , Tian Guan , Anjia Han , Chao He , Yonghong He

In recent years, the availability of digitized Whole Slide Images (WSIs) has enabled the use of deep learning-based computer vision techniques for automated disease diagnosis. However, WSIs present unique computational and algorithmic…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2021-06-15 Yash Sharma , Aman Shrivastava , Lubaina Ehsan , Christopher A. Moskaluk , Sana Syed , Donald E. Brown

Representation learning from Gigapixel Whole Slide Images (WSI) poses a significant challenge in computational pathology due to the complicated nature of tissue structures and the scarcity of labeled data. Multi-instance learning methods…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2024-05-28 Ali Nasiri-Sarvi , Vincent Quoc-Huy Trinh , Hassan Rivaz , Mahdi S. Hosseini

Whole slide image (WSI) classification is a critical task in computational pathology. However, the gigapixel-size of such images remains a major challenge for the current state of deep-learning. Current methods rely on multiple-instance…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-10-04 Etienne Pochet , Rami Maroun , Roger Trullo

Deep learning models have revolutionized the field of medical image analysis, due to their outstanding performances. However, they are sensitive to spurious correlations, often taking advantage of dataset bias to improve results for…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Diogo J. Araújo , M. Rita Verdelho , Alceu Bissoto , Jacinto C. Nascimento , Carlos Santiago , Catarina Barata

Classification of gigapixel Whole Slide Images (WSIs) is an important prediction task in the emerging area of computational pathology. There has been a surge of research in deep learning models for WSI classification with clinical…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-05-04 Sajid Javed , Arif Mahmood , Talha Qaiser , Naoufel Werghi , Nasir Rajpoot

Machine learning models have become integral to many fields, but their reliability, defined as producing dependable, trustworthy, and domain-consistent predictions, remains a critical concern. Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) models…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-10 Hassan Keshvarikhojasteh , Marc Aubreville , Christof A. Bertram , Josien P. W. Pluim , Mitko Veta

Survival analysis using whole-slide images (WSIs) is crucial in cancer research. Despite significant successes, pathology images typically only provide slide-level labels, which hinders the learning of discriminative representations from…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-23 Chengsheng Zhang , Linhao Qu , Xiaoyu Liu , Zhijian Song

Due to the lack of fine-grained annotation guidance, current Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) struggles to establish a robust causal relationship between Whole Slide Image (WSI) diagnosis and evidence sub-images, just like fully supervised…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-08 Tianhang Nan , Yong Ding , Hao Quan , Deliang Li , Lisha Li , Guanghong Zhao , Xiaoyu Cui

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) is the predominant framework for classifying gigapixel whole-slide images in computational pathology. MIL follows a sequence of 1) extracting patch features, 2) applying a linear layer to obtain…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Daniel Shao , Joel Runevic , Richard J. Chen , Drew F. K. Williamson , Ahrong Kim , Andrew H. Song , Faisal Mahmood

A new multi-attention based method for solving the MIL problem (MAMIL), which takes into account the neighboring patches or instances of each analyzed patch in a bag, is proposed. In the method, one of the attention modules takes into…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-14 Andrei V. Konstantinov , Lev V. Utkin

Accurate tumor detection in digital pathology whole-slide images (WSIs) is crucial for cancer diagnosis and treatment planning. Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has emerged as a widely used approach for weakly-supervised tumor detection…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-03-03 Marina D'Amato , Jeroen van der Laak , Francesco Ciompi

While multiple instance learning (MIL) has shown to be a promising approach for histopathological whole slide image (WSI) analysis, its reliance on permutation invariance significantly limits its capacity to effectively uncover semantic…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-07-14 Xiwen Chen , Peijie Qiu , Wenhui Zhu , Hao Wang , Huayu Li , Xuanzhao Dong , Xiaotong Sun , Xiaobing Yu , Yalin Wang , Abolfazl Razi , Aristeidis Sotiras

Malignant lymphoma subtype classification directly impacts treatment strategies and patient outcomes, necessitating classification models that achieve both high accuracy and sufficient explainability. This study proposes a novel explainable…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-04 Daiki Nishiyama , Hiroaki Miyoshi , Noriaki Hashimoto , Koichi Ohshima , Hidekata Hontani , Ichiro Takeuchi , Jun Sakuma