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We propose Adaptive Multi-Scale Goodness Aggregation (AMSGA), a novel extension of the Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm designed to improve stability, robustness, and generalization in local-learning neural networks. AMSGA addresses several…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Salar Beigzad , Vansh Verma

The Forward-Forward (FF) learning algorithm provides a bottom-up alternative to backpropagation (BP) for training neural networks, relying on a layer-wise "goodness" function with well-designed negative samples for contrastive learning.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-11 Zhichao Zhu , Yang Qi , Hengyuan Ma , Wenlian Lu , Jianfeng Feng

The Forward-Forward (FF) Algorithm has been recently proposed to alleviate the issues of backpropagation (BP) commonly used to train deep neural networks. However, its current formulation exhibits limitations such as the generation of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-29 Andreas Papachristodoulou , Christos Kyrkou , Stelios Timotheou , Theocharis Theocharides

The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm offers a biologically plausible alternative to backpropagation, enabling neural networks to learn through local updates. However, FF's efficacy relies heavily on the definition of "goodness", which is a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-25 Arya Shah , Vaibhav Tripathi

Neural networks for visual content understanding have recently evolved from convolutional ones (CNNs) to transformers. The prior (CNN) relies on small-windowed kernels to capture the regional clues, demonstrating solid local expressiveness.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-08-17 Zixuan Su , Hao Zhang , Jingjing Chen , Lei Pang , Chong-Wah Ngo , Yu-Gang Jiang

Recent successes in image analysis with deep neural networks are achieved almost exclusively with Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), typically trained using the backpropagation (BP) algorithm. In a 2022 preprint, Geoffrey Hinton proposed…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-05 Riccardo Scodellaro , Ajinkya Kulkarni , Frauke Alves , Matthias Schröter

The Forward-Forward algorithm eliminates global gradient flow and full network activations storage. However, in convolutional settings, existing BP-free FF methods significantly under-perform backpropagation on complex benchmarks such as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-07 Xiaoyi Jiang , Bashir M. Al-Hashimi , Kai Xu

We propose a scalable Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm that eliminates the need for backpropagation by training each layer separately. Unlike backpropagation, FF avoids backward gradients and can be more modular and memory efficient, making…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-07 Andrii Krutsylo

The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm presents a compelling, bio-inspired alternative to backpropagation. However, while efficient in training, it has a computationally prohibitive inference process that requires a separate forward pass for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Shalini Sarode , Brian Moser , Joachim Folz , Federico Raue , Tobias Nauen , Stanislav Frolov , Andreas Dengel

Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) offer a biologically inspired computational paradigm that emulates neuronal activity through discrete spike-based processing. Despite their advantages, training SNNs with traditional backpropagation (BP)…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-05-28 Mohammadnavid Ghader , Saeed Reza Kheradpisheh , Bahar Farahani , Mahmood Fazlali

The application of deep learning to the area of communications systems has been a growing field of interest in recent years. Forward-forward (FF) learning is an efficient alternative to the backpropagation (BP) algorithm, which is the…

Information Theory · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Daniel Seifert , Onur Günlü , Rafael F. Schaefer

Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) offer a biologically plausible framework for energy-efficient neuromorphic computing. However, it is a challenge to train SNNs due to their non-differentiability, efficiently. Existing gradient approximation…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-08-04 Changqing Xu , Ziqiang Yang , Yi Liu , Xinfang Liao , Guiqi Mo , Hao Zeng , Yintang Yang

Although backpropagation is widely accepted as a training algorithm for artificial neural networks, researchers are always looking for inspiration from the brain to find ways with potentially better performance. Forward-Forward is a novel…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-02 Hossein Aghagolzadeh , Mehdi Ezoji

The rising computational and energy demands of deep neural networks (DNNs), driven largely by backpropagation (BP), challenge sustainable AI development. This paper rigorously investigates three BP-free training methods: the Forward-Forward…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-15 Przemysław Spyra

Deep neural networks trained with backpropagation have achieved outstanding performance in vision tasks but remain biologically implausible, computationally demanding, and difficult to interpret. The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm offers a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Jie-En Yao , Hong-En Chen , C. -C. Jay Kuo

Agents that operate autonomously benefit from lifelong learning capabilities. However, compatible training algorithms must comply with the decentralized nature of these systems, which imposes constraints on both the parameter counts and the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-03-28 Xing Chen , Dongshu Liu , Jeremie Laydevant , Julie Grollier

Backpropagation algorithm has been widely used as a mainstream learning procedure for neural networks in the past decade, and has played a significant role in the development of deep learning. However, there exist some limitations…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-12 Gongpei Zhao , Tao Wang , Yidong Li , Yi Jin , Congyan Lang , Haibin Ling

The Forward-Forward algorithm eliminates backpropagation's memory constraints and biological implausibility through dual forward passes with positive and negative data. However, conventional implementations suffer from critical inter-layer…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-23 Salar Beigzad

Graph neural networks (GNNs) have achieved remarkable success across a wide range of applications, such as recommendation, drug discovery, and question answering. Behind the success of GNNs lies the backpropagation (BP) algorithm, which is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-16 Namyong Park , Xing Wang , Antoine Simoulin , Shuai Yang , Grey Yang , Ryan Rossi , Puja Trivedi , Nesreen Ahmed

The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm was recently proposed as a local learning method to address the limitations of backpropagation (BP), offering biological plausibility along with memory-efficient and highly parallelized computational…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2024-08-28 Yujie Wu , Siyuan Xu , Jibin Wu , Lei Deng , Mingkun Xu , Qinghao Wen , Guoqi Li
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