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There is a longstanding debate whether the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem can explain the use of more than one hidden layer in neural networks. The Kolmogorov-Arnold representation decomposes a multivariate function into an…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-01-05 Johannes Schmidt-Hieber

Recent work by Freedman and Mulligan demonstrated that shallow multilayer perceptrons spontaneously develop Kolmogorov-Arnold geometric (KAG) structure during training on synthetic three-dimensional tasks. However, it remained unclear…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-17 Mathew Vanherreweghe , Michael H. Freedman , Keith M. Adams

Regarding the representation theorem of Kolmogorov and Arnold (KA) as an algorithm for representing or <<expressing>> functions, we test its robustness by analyzing its stability to withstand re-parameterizations of the hidden space. One…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-14 Sviatoslav V. Dzhenzher , Michael H. Freedman

As key models in geometric deep learning, graph neural networks have demonstrated enormous power in molecular data analysis. Recently, a specially-designed learning scheme, known as Kolmogorov-Arnold Network (KAN), shows unique potential…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-19 Longlong Li , Yipeng Zhang , Guanghui Wang , Kelin Xia

This systematic review explores the theoretical foundations, evolution, applications, and future potential of Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KAN), a neural network model inspired by the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem. KANs…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-09 Shriyank Somvanshi , Syed Aaqib Javed , Md Monzurul Islam , Diwas Pandit , Subasish Das

Graph neural networks (GNNs) with attention mechanisms, often referred to as attentive GNNs, have emerged as a prominent paradigm in advanced GNN models in recent years. However, our understanding of the critical process of scoring neighbor…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-03-12 Taoran Fang , Tianhong Gao , Chunping Wang , Yihao Shang , Wei Chow , Lei Chen , Yang Yang

The Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have been the dominant and effective approach for general computer vision tasks. Recently, Kolmogorov-Arnold neural networks (KANs), based on the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem, have shown…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Zhaoxiang Liu , Zhicheng Ma , Kaikai Zhao , Kai Wang , Shiguo Lian

Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) offer an efficient and interpretable alternative to traditional multi-layer perceptron (MLP) architectures due to their finite network topology. However, according to the results of Kolmogorov and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-28 Moein E. Samadi , Younes Müller , Andreas Schuppert

Inspired by the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem, we propose Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) as promising alternatives to Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs). While MLPs have fixed activation functions on nodes ("neurons"), KANs have…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Ziming Liu , Yixuan Wang , Sachin Vaidya , Fabian Ruehle , James Halverson , Marin Soljačić , Thomas Y. Hou , Max Tegmark

The Kolmogorov-Arnold Network (KAN) has recently gained attention as an alternative to traditional multi-layer perceptrons (MLPs), offering improved accuracy and interpretability by employing learnable activation functions on edges. In this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-01-03 Fangchen Yu , Ruilizhen Hu , Yidong Lin , Yuqi Ma , Zhenghao Huang , Wenye Li

The Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem states that any continuous multivariable function can be exactly represented as a finite superposition of continuous single variable functions. Subsequent simplifications of this representation…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-08-04 Sergei Gleyzer , Hanh Nguyen , Dinesh P. Ramakrishnan , Eric A. F. Reinhardt

Deep learning models have revolutionized various domains, with Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLPs) being a cornerstone for tasks like data regression and image classification. However, a recent study has introduced Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-04 Mohammadamin Moradi , Shirin Panahi , Erik Bollt , Ying-Cheng Lai

Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) have gained significant attention as an alternative to traditional multilayer perceptrons, with proponents claiming superior interpretability and performance through learnable univariate activation…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Yuntian Hou , Tianrui Ji , Di Zhang , Angelos Stefanidis

Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) relocate learnable nonlinearities from nodes to edges, demonstrating remarkable capabilities in scientific machine learning and interpretable modeling. However, current KAN implementations suffer from…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-09-25 Alastair Poole , Stig McArthur , Saravan Kumar

Inspired by the Kolmogorov-Arnold representation theorem and Kurkova's principle of using approximate representations, we propose the Kurkova-Kolmogorov-Arnold Network (KKAN), a new two-block architecture that combines robust multi-layer…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-24 Juan Diego Toscano , Li-Lian Wang , George Em Karniadakis

Kolmogorov and Arnold, in answering Hilbert's 13th problem (in the context of continuous functions), laid the foundations for the modern theory of Neural Networks (NNs). Their proof divides the representation of a multivariate function into…

Numerical Analysis · Mathematics 2024-10-14 Michael H. Freedman

Although Kolmogorov-Arnold-based interpretable networks (KANs) possess strong theoretical expressiveness, they suffer from severe parameter explosion and limited ability to capture high-frequency features in high-dimensional tasks. To…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Jusheng Zhang , Yijia Fan , Kaitong Cai , Keze Wang , Wenhao Wang

Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional Multilayer Perceptrons (MLPs) in deep learning. KANs have already been integrated into various architectures, such as convolutional neural networks,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-03-04 Ali Kashefi

The Kolmogorov-Arnold Theorem (KAT), or more generally, the Kolmogorov Superposition Theorem (KST), establishes that any non-linear multivariate function can be exactly represented as a finite superposition of non-linear univariate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-17 Francesco Alesiani , Takashi Maruyama , Henrik Christiansen , Viktor Zaverkin

Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) introduce a paradigm of neural modeling that implements learnable functions on the edges of the networks, diverging from the traditional node-centric activations in neural networks. This work assesses the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-10-21 Basim Azam , Naveed Akhtar
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