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Multi-instance learning (MIL) is a form of weakly supervised learning where a single class label is assigned to a bag of instances while the instance-level labels are not available. Training classifiers to accurately determine the bag label…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2020-06-11 Bin Li , Kevin W. Eliceiri

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is a powerful approach to classify whole slide images (WSIs) for diagnostic pathology. A fundamental challenge of MIL on WSI classification is to discover the \textit{critical instances} that trigger the bag…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-09-02 Zhikang Wang , Yue Bi , Tong Pan , Xiaoyu Wang , Chris Bain , Richard Bassed , Seiya Imoto , Jianhua Yao , Jiangning Song

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has been widely applied to medical imaging diagnosis, where bag labels are known and instance labels inside bags are unknown. Traditional MIL assumes that instances in each bag are independent samples from a…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2023-07-19 Yunan Wu , Francisco M. Castro-Macías , Pablo Morales-Álvarez , Rafael Molina , Aggelos K. Katsaggelos

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has become the leading approach for extracting discriminative features from whole slide images (WSIs) in computational pathology. Attention-based MIL methods can identify key patches but tend to overlook…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Lubin Gan , Xiaoman Wu , Jing Zhang , Zhifeng Wang , Linhao Qu , Siying Wu , Xiaoyan Sun

In computational pathology, whole-slide image (WSI) classification presents a formidable challenge due to its gigapixel resolution and limited fine-grained annotations. Multiple-instance learning (MIL) offers a weakly supervised solution,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-09-06 Renao Yan , Qiehe Sun , Cheng Jin , Yiqing Liu , Yonghong He , Tian Guan , Hao Chen

Multi-instance learning (MIL) is widely used in the computer-aided interpretation of pathological Whole Slide Images (WSIs) to solve the lack of pixel-wise or patch-wise annotations. Often, this approach directly applies "natural image…

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) for whole slide image (WSI) analysis in computational pathology often neglects instance-level learning as supervision is typically provided only at the bag level, hindering the integrated consideration of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-26 Shuyang Wu , Yifu Qiu , Ines P. Nearchou , Sandrine Prost , Jonathan A. Fallowfield , Hideki Ueno , Hitoshi Tsuda , David J. Harrison , Hakan Bilen , Timothy J. Kendall

This paper introduces MAD-MIL, a Multi-head Attention-based Deep Multiple Instance Learning model, designed for weakly supervised Whole Slide Images (WSIs) classification in digital pathology. Inspired by the multi-head attention mechanism…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-04-09 Hassan Keshvarikhojasteh , Josien Pluim , Mitko Veta

In recent years, the integration of pre-trained foundational models with multiple instance learning (MIL) has improved diagnostic accuracy in computational pathology. However, existing MIL methods focus on optimizing feature extractors and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-24 Le Feng , Li Xiao

In computational pathology, weak supervision has become the standard for deep learning due to the gigapixel scale of WSIs and the scarcity of pixel-level annotations, with Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) established as the principal…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-17 Andreas Lolos , Theofilos Christodoulou , Aris L. Moustakas , Stergios Christodoulidis , Maria Vakalopoulou

Advances in medical imaging and deep learning have propelled progress in whole slide image (WSI) analysis, with multiple instance learning (MIL) showing promise for efficient and accurate diagnostics. However, conventional MIL models often…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-05-19 Xianrui Li , Yufei Cui , Jun Li , Antoni B. Chan

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has been increasingly used in the classification of histopathology whole slide images (WSIs). However, MIL approaches for this specific classification problem still face unique challenges, particularly those…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-03-24 Hongrun Zhang , Yanda Meng , Yitian Zhao , Yihong Qiao , Xiaoyun Yang , Sarah E. Coupland , Yalin Zheng

Multi-instance learning (MIL) deals with objects represented as bags of instances and can predict instance labels from bag-level supervision. However, significant performance gaps exist between instance-level MIL algorithms and supervised…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-10-06 Weijia Zhang , Xuanhui Zhang , Han-Wen Deng , Min-Ling Zhang

The whole slide image (WSI) classification is often formulated as a multiple instance learning (MIL) problem. Since the positive tissue is only a small fraction of the gigapixel WSI, existing MIL methods intuitively focus on identifying…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-22 Wenhao Tang , Sheng Huang , Xiaoxian Zhang , Fengtao Zhou , Yi Zhang , Bo Liu

Due to the lack of fine-grained annotation guidance, current Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) struggles to establish a robust causal relationship between Whole Slide Image (WSI) diagnosis and evidence sub-images, just like fully supervised…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-08 Tianhang Nan , Yong Ding , Hao Quan , Deliang Li , Lisha Li , Guanghong Zhao , Xiaoyu Cui

Whole-slide image (WSI) classification in computational pathology is commonly formulated as slide-level Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) with a single global bag representation. However, slide-level MIL is fundamentally underconstrained:…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-04-15 Syed Fahim Ahmed , Gnanesh Rasineni , Florian Koehler , Abu Zahid Bin Aziz , Mei Wang , Attila Gyulassy , Brian Summa , J. Quincy Brown , Valerio Pascucci , Shireen Y. Elhabian

Traditional supervised learning tasks require a label for every instance in the training set, but in many real-world applications, labels are only available for collections (bags) of instances. This problem setting, known as multiple…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-05-23 Georg Wölflein , Lucie Charlotte Magister , Pietro Liò , David J. Harrison , Ognjen Arandjelović

Cancer survival prediction is a challenging task that involves analyzing of the tumor microenvironment within Whole Slide Image (WSI). Previous methods cannot effectively capture the intricate interaction features among instances within the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-10-23 Zekang Yang , Hong Liu , Xiangdong Wang

Whole-slide image classification represents a key challenge in computational pathology and medicine. Attention-based multiple instance learning (MIL) has emerged as an effective approach for this problem. However, the effect of attention…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2025-03-14 Rajiv Krishnakumar , Julien Baglio , Frederik F. Flöther , Christian Ruiz , Stefan Habringer , Nicole H. Romano

Bag-based Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) approaches have emerged as the mainstream methodology for Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification. However, most existing methods adopt a segmented training strategy, which first extracts features…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-13 Jiangping Wen , Jinyu Wen , Meie Fang