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As AI moves beyond text, large language models (LLMs) increasingly power vision, audio, and document understanding; however, their high inference costs hinder real-time, scalable deployment. Conversely, smaller open-source models offer cost…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-11-11 Mayank Saini , Arit Kumar Bishwas

Routing large language models (LLMs) is a new paradigm that uses a router to recommend the best LLM from a pool of candidates for a given input. In this paper, our comprehensive analysis with more than 8,500 LLMs reveals a novel model-level…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-21 Zhongzhan Huang , Guoming Ling , Yupei Lin , Yandong Chen , Shanshan Zhong , Hefeng Wu , Liang Lin

Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit potential artificial generic intelligence recently, however, their usage is costly with high response latency. Given mixed LLMs with their own strengths and weaknesses, LLM routing aims to identify the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-27 Xinyuan Wang , Yanchi Liu , Wei Cheng , Xujiang Zhao , Zhengzhang Chen , Wenchao Yu , Yanjie Fu , Haifeng Chen

The rapid growth of large language models (LLMs) with diverse capabilities, costs, and domains has created a critical need for intelligent model selection at inference time. While smaller models suffice for routine queries, complex tasks…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Yasmin Moslem , John D. Kelleher

The rapid emergence of diverse large language models (LLMs) has spurred the development of LLM routers that assign user queries to the most suitable model. However, existing LLM routers typically perform a single-round, one-to-one mapping…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-27 Haozhen Zhang , Tao Feng , Jiaxuan You

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed as reasoning systems, where reasoning paradigms - such as Chain-of-Thought (CoT) and multi-agent systems (MAS) - play a critical role, yet their relative effectiveness and cost-accuracy…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Yapeng Li , Jiakuo Yu , Zhixin Liu , Xinnan Liu , Jing Yu , Songze Li , Tonghua Su

Hybrid-reasoning large language models (LLMs) expose explicit controls over reasoning effort, allowing users or systems to trade off answer quality against inference cost. However, existing methods for adaptive thinking-mode selection are…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-05-28 Yansong Ning , Mianpeng Liu , Jingwen Ye , Weidong Zhang , Hao Liu

Large Language Models (LLMs) process every token through all layers of a transformer stack, causing wasted computation on simple queries and insufficient flexibility for harder ones that need deeper reasoning. Adaptive-depth methods can…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Ahmed Heakl , Martin Gubri , Salman Khan , Sangdoo Yun , Seong Joon Oh

Large Language Model (LLM) workloads have distinct prefill and decode phases with different compute and memory requirements which should ideally be accounted for when scheduling input queries across different LLM instances in a cluster.…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2025-01-08 Kunal Jain , Anjaly Parayil , Ankur Mallick , Esha Choukse , Xiaoting Qin , Jue Zhang , Íñigo Goiri , Rujia Wang , Chetan Bansal , Victor Rühle , Anoop Kulkarni , Steve Kofsky , Saravan Rajmohan

Transformers and large language models (LLMs) have revolutionized machine learning, with attention mechanisms at the core of their success. As the landscape of attention variants expands, so too do the challenges of optimizing their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-24 Feiyang Chen , Yu Cheng , Lei Wang , Yuqing Xia , Ziming Miao , Lingxiao Ma , Fan Yang , Jilong Xue , Zhi Yang , Mao Yang , Haibo Chen

We propose a novel approach to enhancing the performance and efficiency of large language models (LLMs) by combining domain prompt routing with domain-specialized models. We introduce a system that utilizes a BERT-based router to direct…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-11 Toby Simonds , Kemal Kurniawan , Jey Han Lau

Large Language Models (LLMs) have garnered considerable attention owing to their remarkable capabilities, leading to an increasing number of companies offering LLMs as services. Different LLMs achieve different performance at different…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-05-27 Yueyue Liu , Hongyu Zhang , Yuantian Miao , Van-Hoang Le , Zhiqiang Li

Single large language models (LLMs) often fall short when faced with the ever-growing range of tasks, making a single-model approach insufficient. We address this challenge by proposing ORI (O Routing Intelligence), a dynamic framework that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-18 Ahmad Shadid , Rahul Kumar , Mohit Mayank

As LLMs proliferate with diverse capabilities and costs, LLM routing has emerged by learning to predict each LLM's quality and cost for a given query, then selecting the one with high quality and low cost. However, existing routers…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-04 Jiaqi Xue , Qian Lou , Jiarong Xing , Heng Huang

Model routing is a simple technique for reducing the inference cost of large language models (LLMs), wherein one maintains a pool of candidate LLMs, and learns to route each prompt to the smallest feasible LLM. Existing works focus on…

Multi-model routing has evolved from an engineering technique into essential infrastructure, yet existing work lacks a systematic, reproducible benchmark for evaluating vision-language models (VLMs). We present VL-RouterBench to assess the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-19 Zhehao Huang , Baijiong Lin , Jingyuan Zhang , Jingying Wang , Yuhang Liu , Ning Lu , Tao Li , Xiaolin Huang

The rapid progress in machine learning (ML) has brought forth many large language models (LLMs) that excel in various tasks and areas. These LLMs come with different abilities and costs in terms of computation or pricing. Since the demand…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-23 Quang H. Nguyen , Thinh Dao , Duy C. Hoang , Juliette Decugis , Saurav Manchanda , Nitesh V. Chawla , Khoa D. Doan

Agents built on large language models (LLMs) rely on a range of reliability techniques, including retry, majority voting, and self-consistency, that have been developed in parallel rather than within a common analytical framework. We…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Hamed Omidvar , Vahideh Akhlaghi

With the rapid growth in the number of Large Language Models (LLMs), there has been a recent interest in LLM routing, or directing queries to the cheapest LLM that can deliver a suitable response. We conduct a minimax analysis of the…

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly accessed as remotely hosted services by edge and enterprise clients that cannot run frontier models locally. Since models vary widely in capability and price, routing queries to models that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-02 Baris Askin , Shivam Patel , Anupam Nayak , Andrea Vigano , Jiin Woo , Gauri Joshi , Carlee Joe-Wong