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The seminal breakthrough of AlphaFold in protein structure prediction relied on a learned potential energy function parameterized by deep models, in contrast to its successors AlphaFold2 and AlphaFold3, which lack an explicit probabilistic…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Thomas Hamelryck , Kanti V. Mardia

Protein structure prediction and folding are fundamental to understanding biology, with recent deep learning advances reshaping the field. Diffusion-based generative models have revolutionized protein design, enabling the creation of novel…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-01 Yogesh Verma , Markus Heinonen , Vikas Garg

A protein's function depends critically on its conformational ensemble, a collection of energy weighted structures whose balance depends on temperature and environment. Though recent deep learning (DL) methods have substantially advanced…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2026-01-09 Myeongsang Lee , Lauren L. Porter

The protein folding problem has been fundamentally transformed by artificial intelligence, evolving from static structure prediction toward the modeling of dynamic conformational ensembles and complex biomolecular interactions. This review…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-03-20 Jingzhi Chen , Lijian Xu

Deep learning has transformed protein design, enabling accurate structure prediction, sequence optimization, and de novo protein generation. Advances in single-chain protein structure prediction via AlphaFold2, RoseTTAFold, ESMFold, and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-27 Gregory W. Kyro , Tianyin Qiu , Victor S. Batista

Large-scale Protein Language Models (PLMs) have improved performance in protein prediction tasks, ranging from 3D structure prediction to various function predictions. In particular, AlphaFold, a ground-breaking AI system, could potentially…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2022-10-18 Mingyang Hu , Fajie Yuan , Kevin K. Yang , Fusong Ju , Jin Su , Hui Wang , Fei Yang , Qiuyang Ding

Many aspects of the study of protein folding and dynamics have been affected by the recent advances in machine learning. Methods for the prediction of protein structures from their sequences are now heavily based on machine learning tools.…

Biological Physics · Physics 2019-11-25 Frank Noé , Gianni De Fabritiis , Cecilia Clementi

Protein mutations can significantly influence protein solubility, which results in altered protein functions and leads to various diseases. Despite of tremendous effort, machine learning prediction of protein solubility changes upon…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2023-11-06 JunJie Wee , Jiahui Chen , Kelin Xia , Guo-Wei Wei

Models such as AlphaFold2 and OpenFold have transformed protein structure prediction, yet their inner workings remain poorly understood. We present a methodology to systematically evaluate the contribution of individual OpenFold components…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2025-11-20 Tyler L. Hayes , Giri P. Krishnan

Determining the structure of a protein has been a decades-long open question. A protein's three-dimensional structure often poses nontrivial computation costs, when classical simulation algorithms are utilized. Advances in the transformer…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-09 Chen Dun , Qiutai Pan , Shikai Jin , Ria Stevens , Mitchell D. Miller , George N. Phillips, , Anastasios Kyrillidis

This paper investigates the application of the transformer architecture in protein folding, as exemplified by DeepMind's AlphaFold project, and its implications for the understanding of so-called large language models. The prevailing…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2024-12-10 Fabian Offert , Paul Kim , Qiaoyu Cai

AI-based in silico methods have improved protein structure prediction but often struggle with large protein complexes (PCs) involving multiple interacting proteins due to missing 3D spatial cues. Experimental techniques like Cryo-EM are…

Recent advances in distance-based protein folding have led to a paradigm shift in protein structure prediction. Through sufficiently precise estimation of the inter-residue distance matrix for a protein sequence, it is now feasible to…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2021-01-27 Andrew McGehee , Sutanu Bhattacharya , Rahmatullah Roche , Debswapna Bhattacharya

Deep learning-based approaches, such as AlphaFold2 (AF2), have significantly advanced protein tertiary structure prediction, achieving results comparable to real biological experimental methods. While AF2 has shown limitations in predicting…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2025-01-23 Zhongju Yuan , Tao Shen , Sheng Xu , Leiye Yu , Ruobing Ren , Siqi Sun

AlphaFold predicts protein structures from the amino acid sequence at or near experimental resolution, solving the 50-year-old protein folding challenge, leading to progress by transforming large-scale genomics data into protein structures.…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2021-11-16 Bozitao Zhong , Xiaoming Su , Minhua Wen , Sichen Zuo , Liang Hong , James Lin

Protein structure prediction helps to understand gene translation and protein function, which is of growing interest and importance in structural biology. The AlphaFold model, which used transformer architecture to achieve atomic-level…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-07 Shenggan Cheng , Xuanlei Zhao , Guangyang Lu , Jiarui Fang , Zhongming Yu , Tian Zheng , Ruidong Wu , Xiwen Zhang , Jian Peng , Yang You

While many good textbooks are available on Protein Structure, Molecular Simulations, Thermodynamics and Bioinformatics methods in general, there is no good introductory level book for the field of Structural Bioinformatics. This book aims…

Proteins and other macromolecules exist not in a single state but as dynamic ensembles of interconverting conformations, which are essential for catalysis, allosteric regulation, and molecular recognition. While AI-based structure…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2025-10-22 Stephanie A. Wankowicz , Massimiliano Bonomi

Recent advancements in deep learning for predicting 3D protein structures have shown promise, particularly when leveraging inputs like protein sequences and Cryo-Electron microscopy (Cryo-EM) images. However, these techniques often fall…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-13 Jaydeep Rade , Ethan Herron , Soumik Sarkar , Anwesha Sarkar , Adarsh Krishnamurthy

Deep learning is catalyzing a scientific revolution fueled by big data, accessible toolkits, and powerful computational resources, impacting many fields including protein structural modeling. Protein structural modeling, such as predicting…

Biomolecules · Quantitative Biology 2020-07-17 Wenhao Gao , Sai Pooja Mahajan , Jeremias Sulam , Jeffrey J. Gray