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Transformers, while powerful, suffer from quadratic computational complexity and the ever-growing Key-Value (KV) cache of the attention mechanism. This paper introduces Trellis, a novel Transformer architecture with bounded memory that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-01 Mahdi Karami , Ali Behrouz , Praneeth Kacham , Vahab Mirrokni

Despite the increasing prevalence of large language models (LLMs), we still have a limited understanding of how their representational spaces are structured. This limits our ability to interpret how and what they learn or relate them to…

The growing size of Large Language Models (LLMs) makes efficient inference challenging, primarily due to the memory demands of the autoregressive Key-Value (KV) cache. Existing eviction or compression methods reduce cost but rely on…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-12 Luca Moschella , Laura Manduchi , Ozan Sener

Many computational factors limit broader deployment of large language models. In this paper, we focus on a memory bottleneck imposed by the key-value (KV) cache, a computational shortcut that requires storing previous KV pairs during…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-13 Harry Dong , Xinyu Yang , Zhenyu Zhang , Zhangyang Wang , Yuejie Chi , Beidi Chen

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated exceptional capabilities in generating text, images, and video content. However, as context length grows, the computational cost of attention increases quadratically with the number of tokens,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-23 Neusha Javidnia , Bita Darvish Rouhani , Farinaz Koushanfar

Large language models (LLMs) rely on key-value (KV) caches for efficient autoregressive decoding; however, cache size grows linearly with context length and model depth, becoming a major bottleneck in long-context inference. Prior KV cache…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-22 Dmitry Akulov , Mohamed Sana , Antonio De Domenico , Tareq Si Salem , Nicola Piovesan , Fadhel Ayed

We present LearnedKV, a novel tiered key-value store that seamlessly integrates a Log-Structured Merge (LSM) tree with a Learned Index to achieve superior read and write performance on storage systems. While existing approaches use learned…

Databases · Computer Science 2025-04-14 Wenlong Wang , David Hung-Chang Du

Large Language Model (LLM) inference is increasingly constrained by memory bandwidth, with frequent access to the key-value (KV) cache dominating data movement. While attention sparsity reduces some memory traffic, the relevance of past…

Hardware Architecture · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Yunhua Fang , Rui Xie , Asad Ul Haq , Linsen Ma , Kaoutar El Maghraoui , Naigang Wang , Meng Wang , Liu Liu , Tong Zhang

While LLMs are powerful embedding backbones, their application in training-free settings faces two structural challenges: causal attention restricts early tokens from accessing subsequent context, and the next-token prediction objective…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-06 Yixuan Tang , Yi Yang

The Key-Value (KV) cache is the primary memory bottleneck in long-context Large Language Models, yet it is typically treated as an opaque numerical tensor. In this work, we propose \textbf{STA-Attention}, a framework that utilizes Top-K…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-12 Qingsen Ma , Dianyun Wang , Jiaming Lyu , Yaoye Wang , Lechen Ning , Sujie Zhu , Zhenbo Xu , Liuyu Xiang , Huining Li , Huijia Wu , Zhaofeng He

Recent works on learned index open a new direction for the indexing field. The key insight of the learned index is to approximate the mapping between keys and positions with piece-wise linear functions. Such methods require partitioning key…

Databases · Computer Science 2022-05-25 Shangyu Wu , Yufei Cui , Jinghuan Yu , Xuan Sun , Tei-Wei Kuo , Chun Jason Xue

Efficient deployment of Large Language Models (LLMs) requires batching multiple requests together to improve throughput. As the batch size, context length, or model size increases, the size of the key and value (KV) cache can quickly become…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-08 Tianyi Zhang , Jonah Yi , Zhaozhuo Xu , Anshumali Shrivastava

Transformers lack an explicit architectural mechanism for storing and organizing knowledge acquired during training. We introduce learnable sparse memory banks: a set of latent tokens, randomly initialized and trained end-to-end, that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Tasmay Pankaj Tibrewal , Pritish Saha , Ankit Meda , Kunal Singh , Pradeep Moturi

A key characteristic of deep recommendation models is the immense memory requirements of their embedding tables. These embedding tables can often reach hundreds of gigabytes which increases hardware requirements and training cost. A common…

As Large Language Models (LLMs) scale to support context windows exceeding one million tokens, the linear growth of Key-Value (KV) cache imposes severe memory capacity and bandwidth bottlenecks, constraining the efficiency of long-context…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-09 Zhirui Chen , Peiyang Liu , Ling Shao

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly expected to operate over long contexts, yet standard softmax attention incurs a KV cache that grows linearly with sequence length, quickly becoming the bottleneck for long context inference. A…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Xintong Yang , Hao Gu , Binxing Xu , Lujun Li , Bei Liu , Jiacheng Liu , Qiyuan Zhu , Sirui Han , Yike Guo

Large Language Model (LLM) inference, where a trained model generates text one word at a time in response to user prompts, is a computationally intensive process requiring efficient scheduling to optimize latency and resource utilization. A…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-16 Patrick Jaillet , Jiashuo Jiang , Konstantina Mellou , Marco Molinaro , Chara Podimata , Zijie Zhou

Indexes are models: a B-Tree-Index can be seen as a model to map a key to the position of a record within a sorted array, a Hash-Index as a model to map a key to a position of a record within an unsorted array, and a BitMap-Index as a model…

Databases · Computer Science 2018-05-01 Tim Kraska , Alex Beutel , Ed H. Chi , Jeffrey Dean , Neoklis Polyzotis

Large Language Models (LLMs) typically rely on a large number of parameters for token embedding, leading to substantial storage requirements and memory footprints. In particular, LLMs deployed on edge devices are memory-bound, and reducing…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-15 Dayin Gou , Sanghyun Byun , Nilesh Malpeddi , Gabrielle De Micheli , Prathamesh Vaste , Jacob Song , Woo Seong Chung

Learnable embedding vector is one of the most important applications in machine learning, and is widely used in various database-related domains. However, the high dimensionality of sparse data in recommendation tasks and the huge volume of…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-14 Hailin Zhang , Penghao Zhao , Xupeng Miao , Yingxia Shao , Zirui Liu , Tong Yang , Bin Cui