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Modern text classification methods heavily rely on contextual embeddings from large language models (LLMs). Compared to human-engineered features, these embeddings provide automatic and effective representations for classification model…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-07-29 Xuansheng Wu , Wenhao Yu , Xiaoming Zhai , Ninghao Liu

The rapid development of LLMs has raised concerns about their potential misuse, leading to various watermarking schemes that typically offer high detectability. However, existing watermarking techniques often face trade-off between…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-21 Chenrui Wang , Junyi Shu , Billy Chiu , Yu Li , Saleh Alharbi , Min Zhang , Jing Li

Watermarking acts as a critical safeguard in text generated by Large Language Models (LLMs). By embedding identifiable signals into model outputs, watermarking enables reliable attribution and enhances the security of machine-generated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Yukang Lin , Jiahao Shao , Shuoran Jiang , Wentao Zhu , Bingjie Lu , Xiangping Wu , Joanna Siebert , Qingcai Chen

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities of generating texts resembling human language. However, they can be misused by criminals to create deceptive content, such as fake news and phishing emails, which raises…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-01-29 Wenjie Qu , Wengrui Zheng , Tianyang Tao , Dong Yin , Yanze Jiang , Zhihua Tian , Wei Zou , Jinyuan Jia , Jiaheng Zhang

LLMs now exhibit human-like skills in various fields, leading to worries about misuse. Thus, detecting generated text is crucial. However, passive detection methods are stuck in domain specificity and limited adversarial robustness. To…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-17 Xi Yang , Kejiang Chen , Weiming Zhang , Chang Liu , Yuang Qi , Jie Zhang , Han Fang , Nenghai Yu

Semantic-level watermarking (SWM) improves robustness against text modifications by treating sentences as the basic unit. However, robustness to paragraph-level paraphrasing remains difficult because such attacks globally disrupt watermark…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Jiahao Huo , Wenjie Qu , Yibo Yan , Kening Zheng , Jiaheng Zhang , Xuming Hu , Philip S. Yu , Mingxun Zhou

The mechanisms behind multilingual capabilities in Large Language Models (LLMs) have been examined using neuron-based or internal-activation-based methods. However, these methods often face challenges such as superposition and layer-wise…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-28 Boyi Deng , Yu Wan , Yidan Zhang , Baosong Yang , Fuli Feng

Understanding the multilingual mechanisms of large language models (LLMs) provides insight into how they process different languages, yet this remains challenging. Existing studies often focus on individual neurons, but their polysemantic…

Recent advances in Large Language Models (LLMs) have led to significant improvements in natural language processing tasks, but their ability to generate human-quality text raises significant ethical and operational concerns in settings…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-01-27 Adam Block , Ayush Sekhari , Alexander Rakhlin

The rise of LLMs has increased concerns over source tracing and copyright protection for AIGC, highlighting the need for advanced detection technologies. Passive detection methods usually face high false positives, while active watermarking…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-03 Kahim Wong , Jicheng Zhou , Jiantao Zhou , Yain-Whar Si

The impressive performances of Large Language Models (LLMs) and their immense potential for commercialization have given rise to serious concerns over the Intellectual Property (IP) of their training data. In particular, the synthetic texts…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-26 Jingtan Wang , Xinyang Lu , Zitong Zhao , Zhongxiang Dai , Chuan-Sheng Foo , See-Kiong Ng , Bryan Kian Hsiang Low

The ability of large language models (LLMs) to follow instructions is crucial for their practical applications, yet the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. This paper presents a novel framework that leverages sparse autoencoders…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-18 Zirui He , Haiyan Zhao , Yiran Qiao , Fan Yang , Ali Payani , Jing Ma , Mengnan Du

Watermarking has recently emerged as an effective strategy for detecting the outputs of large language models (LLMs). Most existing schemes require white-box access to the model's next-token probability distribution, which is typically not…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-24 Dara Bahri , John Wieting

LLM watermarks allow tracing AI-generated texts by inserting a detectable signal into their generated content. Recent works have proposed a wide range of watermarking algorithms, each with distinct designs, usually built using a bottom-up…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-09 Thibaud Gloaguen , Robin Staab , Nikola Jovanović , Martin Vechev

The recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have sparked a growing apprehension regarding the potential misuse. One approach to mitigating this risk is to incorporate watermarking techniques into LLMs, allowing for the tracking…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2023-10-19 Zhengmian Hu , Lichang Chen , Xidong Wu , Yihan Wu , Hongyang Zhang , Heng Huang

Text watermarking has emerged as a pivotal technique for identifying machine-generated text. However, existing methods often rely on arbitrary vocabulary partitioning during decoding to embed watermarks, which compromises the availability…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-07 Liang Chen , Yatao Bian , Yang Deng , Deng Cai , Shuaiyi Li , Peilin Zhao , Kam-fai Wong

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable capabilities, but their training requires extensive data and computational resources, rendering them valuable digital assets. Therefore, it is essential to watermark LLMs to protect…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-21 Shuai Li , Kejiang Chen , Jun Jiang , Jie Zhang , Qiyi Yao , Kai Zeng , Weiming Zhang , Nenghai Yu

Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success across a wide range of natural language processing tasks, demonstrating human-level performance in text generation, reasoning, and question answering. However, training such…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-11-17 Yanbo Dai , Zongjie Li , Zhenlan Ji , Shuai Wang

Proprietary large language models (LLMs) face risks of intellectual property (IP) violation, as adversaries can replicate an LLM by collecting input-output pairs to train a surrogate model, causing financial setbacks. Watermarks offer a…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-25 Kieu Dang , Phung Lai , NhatHai Phan , Yelong Shen , Ruoming Jin

Multi-bit watermarking has emerged as a promising solution for embedding imperceptible binary messages into Large Language Model (LLM)-generated text, enabling reliable attribution and tracing of malicious usage of LLMs. Despite recent…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-17 Jiahao Xu , Rui Hu , Olivera Kotevska , Zikai Zhang