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Interpreting predictions from tree ensemble methods such as gradient boosting machines and random forests is important, yet feature attribution for trees is often heuristic and not individualized for each prediction. Here we show that…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-03-08 Scott M. Lundberg , Gabriel G. Erion , Su-In Lee

Shapley values have been used extensively in machine learning, not only to explain black box machine learning models, but among other tasks, also to conduct model debugging, sensitivity and fairness analyses and to select important features…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-11-22 Iqbal Madakkatel , Elina Hyppönen

Algorithmic decisions in critical domains such as hiring, college admissions, and lending are often based on rankings. Given the impact of these decisions on individuals, organizations, and population groups, it is essential to understand…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-07-29 Venetia Pliatsika , Joao Fonseca , Kateryna Akhynko , Ivan Shevchenko , Julia Stoyanovich

Interpretable machine learning has been focusing on explaining final models that optimize performance. The current state-of-the-art is the Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) that locally explains variable impact on individual predictions,…

In this growing age of data and technology, large black-box models are becoming the norm due to their ability to handle vast amounts of data and learn incredibly complex data patterns. The deficiency of these methods, however, is their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-09 Justin Lin , Julia Fukuyama

In healthcare, making the best possible predictions with complex models (e.g., neural networks, ensembles/stacks of different models) can impact patient welfare. In order to make these complex models explainable, we present DeepSHAP for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-11-28 Hugh Chen , Scott Lundberg , Su-In Lee

Note that a newer expanded version of this paper is now available at: arXiv:1802.03888 It is critical in many applications to understand what features are important for a model, and why individual predictions were made. For tree ensemble…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2018-02-20 Scott M. Lundberg , Su-In Lee

Additive feature explanations using Shapley values have become popular for providing transparency into the relative importance of each feature to an individual prediction of a machine learning model. While Shapley values provide a unique…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-12-21 Thomas W. Campbell , Heinrich Roder , Robert W. Georgantas , Joanna Roder

Many existing approaches for estimating feature importance are problematic because they ignore or hide dependencies among features. A causal graph, which encodes the relationships among input variables, can aid in assigning feature…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-01 Jiaxuan Wang , Jenna Wiens , Scott Lundberg

Shapley values are model-agnostic methods for explaining model predictions. Many commonly used methods of computing Shapley values, known as off-manifold methods, rely on model evaluations on out-of-distribution input samples. Consequently,…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-02-28 Muhammad Faaiz Taufiq , Patrick Blöbaum , Lenon Minorics

With the adoption of machine learning into routine clinical practice comes the need for Explainable AI methods tailored to medical applications. Shapley values have sparked wide interest for locally explaining models. Here, we demonstrate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-02 Lucile Ter-Minassian , Sahra Ghalebikesabi , Karla Diaz-Ordaz , Chris Holmes

Machine Learning (ML) is becoming increasingly popular in fluid dynamics. Powerful ML algorithms such as neural networks or ensemble methods are notoriously difficult to interpret. Here, we introduce the novel Shapley Additive Explanations…

Fluid Dynamics · Physics 2022-05-20 Martin Lellep , Jonathan Prexl , Bruno Eckhardt , Moritz Linkmann

Hyperparameter optimization (HPO) is a crucial step in achieving strong predictive performance. Yet, the impact of individual hyperparameters on model generalization is highly context-dependent, prohibiting a one-size-fits-all solution and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-11 Marcel Wever , Maximilian Muschalik , Fabian Fumagalli , Marius Lindauer

Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) is essential for trustworthy machine learning (ML), particularly in high-stakes domains such as healthcare and finance. Shapley value (SV) methods provide a principled framework for feature…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-10-03 Wangxuan Fan , Siqi Li , Doudou Zhou , Yohei Okada , Chuan Hong , Molei Liu , Nan Liu

In explainable machine learning, local post-hoc explanation algorithms and inherently interpretable models are often seen as competing approaches. This work offers a partial reconciliation between the two by establishing a correspondence…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-24 Sebastian Bordt , Ulrike von Luxburg

The Shapley Additive Global Importance (SAGE) value is a theoretically appealing interpretability method that fairly attributes global importance to a model's features. However, its exact calculation requires the computation of the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-04-07 Christoph Luther , Gunnar König , Moritz Grosse-Wentrup

As modern complex neural networks keep breaking records and solving harder problems, their predictions also become less and less intelligible. The current lack of interpretability often undermines the deployment of accurate machine learning…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-07-15 Jacopo Teneggi , Alexandre Luster , Jeremias Sulam

Originally introduced in cooperative game theory, Shapley values have become a very popular tool to explain machine learning predictions. Based on Shapley's fairness axioms, every input (feature component) gets a credit how it contributes…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-08-19 Michael Mayer , Mario V. Wüthrich

Shapley values have become one of the go-to methods to explain complex models to end-users. They provide a model agnostic post-hoc explanation with foundations in game theory: what is the worth of a player (in machine learning, a feature…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-21 Joran Michiels , Maarten De Vos , Johan Suykens

When using machine learning techniques in decision-making processes, the interpretability of the models is important. In the present paper, we adopted the Shapley additive explanation (SHAP), which is based on fair profit allocation among…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-03 Yasunobu Nohara , Koutarou Matsumoto , Hidehisa Soejima , Naoki Nakashima