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Large Language Models (LLMs), such as GPT-4 and Llama 2, show remarkable proficiency in a wide range of natural language processing (NLP) tasks. Despite their effectiveness, the high costs associated with their use pose a challenge. We…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-26 Bálint Csanády , Lajos Muzsai , Péter Vedres , Zoltán Nádasdy , András Lukács

Data annotation often involves multiple sources with different cost-quality trade-offs, such as fast large language models (LLMs), slow reasoning models, and human experts. In this work, we study the problem of routing inputs to the most…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-04 Hao Zeng , Huipeng Huang , Xinhao Qu , Jianguo Huang , Bingyi Jing , Hongxin Wei

As modern artificial intelligence (AI) systems become more advanced and capable, they can leverage a wide range of tools and models to perform complex tasks. The task of orchestrating these models is increasingly performed by Large Language…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-20 Daria Smirnova , Hamid Nasiri , Marta Adamska , Zhengxin Yu , Peter Garraghan

Utilizing large language models (LLMs) for tool planning has emerged as a promising avenue for developing general AI systems, where LLMs automatically schedule external tools (e.g., vision models) to tackle complex tasks based on task…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-07-15 Duo Wu , Jinghe Wang , Yuan Meng , Yanning Zhang , Le Sun , Zhi Wang

While large language models (LLMs) have recently made tremendous progress towards solving challenging AI problems, they have done so at increasingly steep computational and API costs. We propose a novel strategy where we combine multiple…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Wenwen Si , Sooyong Jang , Insup Lee , Osbert Bastani

Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) answering is a widely used method for evaluating the performance of Large Language Models (LLMs). However, LLMs often exhibit selection bias in MCQ tasks, where their choices are influenced by factors like…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-12-01 Blessed Guda , Lawrence Francis , Gabrial Zencha Ashungafac , Carlee Joe-Wong , Moise Busogi

Human annotation of training samples is expensive, laborious, and sometimes challenging, especially for Natural Language Processing (NLP) tasks. To reduce the labeling cost and enhance the sample efficiency, Active Learning (AL) technique…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-01-17 Xuesong Wang

Content annotation at scale remains challenging, requiring substantial human expertise and effort. This paper presents a case study in code documentation analysis, where we explore the balance between automation efficiency and annotation…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2025-04-29 Mingyue Yuan , Jieshan Chen , Zhenchang Xing , Gelareh Mohammadi , Aaron Quigley

While Large Language Models (LLMs) have significantly advanced code generation efficiency, they face inherent challenges in balancing performance and inference costs across diverse programming tasks. Dynamically selecting the optimal LLM…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-06-13 Junhang Cheng , Fang Liu , Chengru Wu , Li Zhang

Active learning aims to reduce annotation cost by selectively querying informative samples for supervision under a limited labeling budget. In this work, we investigate how vision-language models (VLMs) can be leveraged to further reduce…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Phuong Ngoc Nguyen , Kaito Shiku , Ryoma Bise , Seiichi Uchida , Shinnosuke Matsuo

Despite growing interest in using large language models (LLMs) to automate annotation, their effectiveness in complex, nuanced, and multi-dimensional labelling tasks remains relatively underexplored. This study focuses on annotation for the…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-07-02 Leila Tavakoli , Hamed Zamani

Instruction fine-tuning stands as a crucial advancement in leveraging large language models (LLMs) for enhanced task performance. However, the annotation of instruction datasets has traditionally been expensive and laborious, often relying…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-08-05 He Zhu , Junyou Su , Tianle Lun , Yicheng Tao , Wenjia Zhang , Zipei Fan , Guanhua Chen

The growing demand for AI training data has transformed data annotation into a global industry, but traditional approaches relying on human annotators are often time-consuming, labor-intensive, and prone to inconsistent quality. We propose…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2024-09-25 Yifan Wang , David Stevens , Pranay Shah , Wenwen Jiang , Miao Liu , Xu Chen , Robert Kuo , Na Li , Boying Gong , Daniel Lee , Jiabo Hu , Ning Zhang , Bob Kamma

This paper introduces a novel crowdsourcing worker selection algorithm, enhancing annotation quality and reducing costs. Unlike previous studies targeting simpler tasks, this study contends with the complexities of label interdependencies…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-30 Yujie Wang , Chao Huang , Liner Yang , Zhixuan Fang , Yaping Huang , Yang Liu , Jingsi Yu , Erhong Yang

Supervised learning relies on high-quality labeled data, but obtaining such data through human annotation is both expensive and time-consuming. Recent work explores using large language models (LLMs) for annotation, but LLM-generated labels…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-23 Lequan Lin , Dai Shi , Andi Han , Feng Chen , Qiuzheng Chen , Jiawen Li , Zhaoyang Li , Jiyuan Li , Zhenbang Sun , Junbin Gao

Instruction tuning benefits from large and diverse datasets; however, creating such datasets involves a high cost of human labeling. While synthetic datasets generated by large language models (LLMs) have partly solved this issue, they…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-08-28 Ritik Sachin Parkar , Jaehyung Kim , Jong Inn Park , Dongyeop Kang

Engagement recognition in video datasets, unlike traditional image classification tasks, is particularly challenged by subjective labels and noise limiting model performance. To overcome the challenges of subjective and noisy engagement…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-19 Alexander Vedernikov , Puneet Kumar , Haoyu Chen , Tapio Seppänen , Xiaobai Li

As foundation models continue to scale, the size of trained models grows exponentially, presenting significant challenges for their evaluation. Current evaluation practices involve curating increasingly large datasets to assess the…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-05-08 Ganghua Wang , Zhaorun Chen , Bo Li , Haifeng Xu

Accurate multi-turn intent classification is essential for advancing conversational AI systems. However, challenges such as the scarcity of comprehensive datasets and the complexity of contextual dependencies across dialogue turns hinder…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-20 Junhua Liu , Yong Keat Tan , Bin Fu , Kwan Hui Lim

Evaluating production-level retrieval systems at scale is a crucial yet challenging task due to the limited availability of a large pool of well-trained human annotators. Large Language Models (LLMs) have the potential to address this…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2024-09-19 Kasra Hosseini , Thomas Kober , Josip Krapac , Roland Vollgraf , Weiwei Cheng , Ana Peleteiro Ramallo