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The classical shadows protocol, recently introduced by Huang, Kueng, and Preskill [Nat. Phys. 16, 1050 (2020)], is a quantum-classical protocol to estimate properties of an unknown quantum state. Unlike full quantum state tomography, the…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-08-17 Dax Enshan Koh , Sabee Grewal

Mitigating errors in quantum information processing devices is especially important in the absence of fault tolerance. An effective method in suppressing state-preparation errors is using multiple copies to distill the ideal component from…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-03-26 Alireza Seif , Ze-Pei Cian , Sisi Zhou , Senrui Chen , Liang Jiang

Obtaining precise estimates of quantum observables is a crucial step of variational quantum algorithms. We consider the problem of estimating expectation values of molecular Hamiltonians, obtained on states prepared on a quantum computer.…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-06-30 Charles Hadfield , Sergey Bravyi , Rudy Raymond , Antonio Mezzacapo

Shadow tomography via classical shadows is a state-of-the-art approach for estimating properties of a quantum state. We present a simplified, combinatorial analysis of a recently proposed instantiation of this approach based on the ensemble…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2022-08-01 Bryan O'Gorman

Shadow tomography is a framework for constructing succinct descriptions of quantum states using randomized measurement bases, called classical shadows, with powerful methods to bound the estimators used. We recast existing experimental…

We introduce the concept of selective quantum state tomography or SQST, a tomographic scheme that enables a user to estimate arbitrary elements of an unknown quantum state using a fixed measurement record. We demonstrate how this may be…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2020-06-12 Joshua Morris , Borivoje Dakić

We introduce "holographic shadows", a new class of randomized measurement schemes for classical shadow tomography that achieves the optimal scaling of sample complexity for learning geometrically local Pauli operators at any length scale,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-12-30 Shuhan Zhang , Xiaozhou Feng , Matteo Ippoliti , Yi-Zhuang You

Gradient-based optimizers have been proposed for training variational quantum circuits in settings such as quantum neural networks (QNNs). The task of gradient estimation, however, has proven to be challenging, primarily due to distinctive…

Classical machine learning theory and theory of quantum computations are among of the most rapidly developing scientific areas in our days. In recent years, researchers investigated if quantum computing can help to improve classical machine…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2019-06-26 D. V. Fastovets , Yu. I. Bogdanov , B. I. Bantysh , V. F. Lukichev

Quantum state tomography (QST) is the art of reconstructing an unknown quantum state through measurements. It is a key primitive for developing quantum technologies. Neural network quantum state tomography (NNQST), which aims to reconstruct…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-06-18 Victor Wei , W. A. Coish , Pooya Ronagh , Christine A. Muschik

The classical shadow estimation protocol is a noise-resilient and sample-efficient quantum algorithm for learning the properties of quantum systems. Its performance depends on the choice of a unitary ensemble, which must be chosen by a user…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2024-01-10 Kaifeng Bu , Dax Enshan Koh , Roy J. Garcia , Arthur Jaffe

Quantum process tomography is a critical capability for building quantum computers, enabling quantum networks, and understanding quantum sensors. Like quantum state tomography, the process tomography of an arbitrary quantum channel requires…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-05-26 Jonathan Kunjummen , Minh C. Tran , Daniel Carney , Jacob M. Taylor

We provide a general machine learning methodology that integrates classical shadow representations with unsupervised principal component analysis (PCA) to explore various quantum phase transitions. By sampling spin configurations from…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-04-22 Chi-Ting Ho , Daw-Wei Wang

Accurately estimating expectation values of quantum observables with as few measurements as possible is crucial to many quantum computing applications. We introduce a framework that covers many of existing measurement strategies and…

Classical shadow tomography has emerged as a powerful framework for predicting properties of quantum many-body systems with favorable sample complexity. Standard theoretical guarantees, however, rely on the assumption that experimental…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-06 Leonardo Zambrano

The method of classical shadows heralds unprecedented opportunities for quantum estimation with limited measurements [H.-Y. Huang, R. Kueng, and J. Preskill, Nat. Phys. 16, 1050 (2020)]. Yet its relationship to established quantum…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2021-07-19 Joseph M. Lukens , Kody J. H. Law , Ryan S. Bennink

Quantum measurements are slow, while classical processors are fast, yet existing hybrid protocols never exploit this asymmetry. In this work, we propose an alternative formulation of classical estimators as online algorithms that are…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2026-03-30 Marwa Marso , Sabrina Herbst , Jadwiga Wilkens , Vincenzo De Maio , Ivona Brandic , Richard Kueng

We introduce a general statistical learning theory for processes that take as input a classical random variable and output a quantum state. Our setting is motivated by the practical situation in which one desires to learn a quantum process…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-02-27 Marco Fanizza , Yihui Quek , Matteo Rosati

Properties of quantum systems can be estimated using classical shadows, which implement measurements based on random ensembles of unitaries. Originally derived for global Clifford unitaries and products of single-qubit Clifford gates,…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2023-09-25 Mirko Arienzo , Markus Heinrich , Ingo Roth , Martin Kliesch

Quantum state tomography is a technique in quantum information science used to reconstruct the density matrix of an unknown quantum state, providing complete information about the quantum state. It is of significant importance in fields…

Quantum Physics · Physics 2025-07-23 Wenlong Zhao , Da Zhang , Huili Zhang , Haifeng Yu , Zhang-qi Yin