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Context. The rise of Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to their widespread adoption in development pipelines. Goal. We empirically assess the energy efficiency of Python code generated by LLMs against human-written code and code…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-09-15 Radu Apsan , Vincenzo Stoico , Michel Albonico , Rudra Dhar , Karthik Vaidhyanathan , Ivano Malavolta

Large Language Models have quickly become a central component of modern software development workflows, and software practitioners are increasingly integrating LLMs into various stages of the software development lifecycle. Despite the…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-10-13 Italo Santos , Cleyton Magalhaes , Ronnie de Souza Santos

Throughout its lifecycle, a large language model (LLM) generates a substantially larger carbon footprint during inference than training. LLM inference requests vary in batch size, prompt length, and token generation number, while cloud…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-07 Zhenxiao Fu , Fan Chen , Shan Zhou , Haitong Li , Lei Jiang

The advancement of Large Language Models (LLM) has also resulted in an equivalent proliferation in its applications. Software design, being one, has gained tremendous benefits in using LLMs as an interface component that extends fixed user…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-07-01 Claudionor N. Coelho , Hanchen Xiong , Tushar Karayil , Sree Koratala , Rex Shang , Jacob Bollinger , Mohamed Shabar , Syam Nair

As the performance of artificial intelligence systems has dramatically increased, so too has the environmental impact of creating these systems. While many model developers release estimates of the power consumption and carbon emissions…

Computers and Society · Computer Science 2025-03-11 Jacob Morrison , Clara Na , Jared Fernandez , Tim Dettmers , Emma Strubell , Jesse Dodge

The carbon footprint associated with large language models (LLMs) is a significant concern, encompassing emissions from their training, inference, experimentation, and storage processes, including operational and embodied carbon emissions.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-01-22 Ahmad Faiz , Sotaro Kaneda , Ruhan Wang , Rita Osi , Prateek Sharma , Fan Chen , Lei Jiang

Large Language Models (LLMs) are transforming programming practices, offering significant capabilities for code generation activities. While researchers have explored the potential of LLMs in various domains, this paper focuses on their use…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Deborah Etsenake , Meiyappan Nagappan

The prevalence of Large Language Models (LLMs) is having an growing impact on the climate due to the substantial energy required for their deployment and use. To create awareness for developers who are implementing LLMs in their products,…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-09-12 K. Pronk , Q. Zhao

Context. Nowadays, 83% of software developers use Large Language Models (LLMs) to generate code. LLMs recently became essential to increase the productivity of software developers and decrease the time and cost of software development.…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-05-07 Vlad-Andrei Cursaru , Laura Duits , Joel Milligan , Damla Ural , Berta Rodriguez Sanchez , Vincenzo Stoico , Ivano Malavolta

Large language models (LLMs) like GPT-3 and BERT have revolutionized natural language processing (NLP), yet their environmental costs remain dangerously overlooked. This article critiques the sustainability of LLMs, quantifying their carbon…

The rapid development of large language models (LLMs) has significantly transformed the field of artificial intelligence, demonstrating remarkable capabilities in natural language processing and moving towards multi-modal functionality.…

Machine learning (ML) requires using energy to carry out computations during the model training process. The generation of this energy comes with an environmental cost in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, depending on quantity used and the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-17 Alexandra Sasha Luccioni , Alex Hernandez-Garcia

Large language models, such as OpenAI's codex and Deepmind's AlphaCode, can generate code to solve a variety of problems expressed in natural language. This technology has already been commercialised in at least one widely-used programming…

Human-Computer Interaction · Computer Science 2022-10-18 Advait Sarkar , Andrew D. Gordon , Carina Negreanu , Christian Poelitz , Sruti Srinivasa Ragavan , Ben Zorn

Large Language Models (LLMs) have garnered remarkable advancements across diverse code-related tasks, known as Code LLMs, particularly in code generation that generates source code with LLM from natural language descriptions. This…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-28 Juyong Jiang , Fan Wang , Jiasi Shen , Sungju Kim , Sunghun Kim

Context: AI-assisted tools are increasingly integrated into software development workflows, but their reliance on large language models (LLMs) introduces substantial computational and energy costs. Understanding and reducing the energy…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-02-06 Lola Solovyeva , Fernando Castor

Large language model assistants (LLM-assistants) present new opportunities to transform software development. Developers are increasingly adopting these tools across tasks, including coding, testing, debugging, documentation, and design.…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Amr Mohamed , Maram Assi , Mariam Guizani

Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as coding assistants, capable of generating source code from natural language prompts. With the increasing adoption of LLMs in software development, academic research and industry based projects are…

Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated their remarkable capabilities in numerous fields. This survey focuses on how LLMs empower users, regardless of their technical background, to use human languages to automatically generate…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-04-03 Nam Huynh , Beiyu Lin

The increasing use of language models in automated software testing raises concerns about their environmental impact, yet existing sustainability analyses focus almost exclusively on large language models. As a result, the energy and carbon…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-02-23 Pragati Kumari , Novarun Deb

The rapid advancement of Large Language Models (LLMs) is reshaping software engineering by profoundly influencing coding, documentation, and system maintenance practices. As these tools become deeply embedded in developers' daily workflows,…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-12-29 Vítor Mateus de Brito , Kleinner Farias