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The Model Context Protocol (MCP) (MCP Community, 2025) has emerged as a widely used framework for enabling LLM-based agents to communicate with external tools and services. The original MCP implementation (Anthropic, 2024) relies on a Large…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2026-01-26 Meenakshi Amulya Jayanti , X. Y. Han

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as a standard for connecting large language models (LLMs) with external tools. However, this MCP ecosystem introduces new security risks across hosts, servers, and registries. In this paper, we…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-29 Xiaofan Li , Xing Gao

Large language model powered autonomous agents demand robust, standardized protocols to integrate tools, share contextual data, and coordinate tasks across heterogeneous systems. Ad-hoc integrations are difficult to scale, secure, and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-05-26 Abul Ehtesham , Aditi Singh , Gaurav Kumar Gupta , Saket Kumar

Large Language Models (LLMs) have evolved into AI agents that interact with external tools and environments to perform complex tasks. The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has become the de facto standard for connecting agents with such…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-27 Christoph Bühler , Matteo Biagiola , Luca Di Grazia , Guido Salvaneschi

We introduce MCP-Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models (LLMs) on realistic, multi-step tasks that demand tool use, cross-tool coordination, precise parameter control, and planning/reasoning for solving tasks. Built on the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-29 Zhenting Wang , Qi Chang , Hemani Patel , Shashank Biju , Cheng-En Wu , Quan Liu , Aolin Ding , Alireza Rezazadeh , Ankit Shah , Yujia Bao , Eugene Siow

Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) and the introduction of the Model Context Protocol (MCP) have significantly expanded LLM agents' capability to interact dynamically with external tools and APIs. However, existing tool…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-13 Elias Lumer , Anmol Gulati , Vamse Kumar Subbiah , Pradeep Honaganahalli Basavaraju , James A. Burke

Large Language Models (LLMs) demonstrate strong capabilities in solving complex tasks when integrated with external tools. The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has become a standard interface for enabling such tool-based interactions. However,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-23 Jiayi Fu , Yuansen Zhang , Yinggui Wang

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is emerging as a standard interface through which large language model (LLM) agents discover and invoke external tools. However, existing MCP evaluations fall short along three key axes: realistic multi-step…

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has recently emerged as a standardized interface for connecting language models with external tools and data. As the ecosystem rapidly expands, the lack of a structured, comprehensive view of existing MCP…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-01 Zhiwei Lin , Bonan Ruan , Jiahao Liu , Weibo Zhao

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is rapidly emerging as a pivotal open standard, designed to enhance agent-tool integration and interoperability, and is positioned to unlock a new era of powerful, interconnected, and genuinely utilitarian…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-15 Zikang Guo , Benfeng Xu , Chiwei Zhu , Wentao Hong , Xiaorui Wang , Zhendong Mao

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) has emerged as a standard for connecting Large Language Models (LLMs) to external tools and data. However, MCP servers often expose privileged capabilities, such as file system access, network requests, and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Charoes Huang , Xin Huang , Amin Milani Fard

Model Context Protocol (MCP) has recently gained increased attention within the AI community for providing a standardized way for large language models (LLMs) to interact with external tools and services, significantly enhancing their…

Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing · Computer Science 2025-11-12 Zihao Ding , Mufeng Zhu , Yao Liu

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) standardizes how AI agents discover and invoke external tools, with over 10,000 active servers and 97 million monthly SDK downloads as of early 2026. Yet MCP does not yet standardize how agents safely…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-04-16 Vasundra Srinivasan

Although Foundation Models (FMs), such as GPT-4, are increasingly used in domains like finance and software engineering, reliance on textual interfaces limits these models' real-world interaction. To address this, FM providers introduced a…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Mohammed Mehedi Hasan , Hao Li , Emad Fallahzadeh , Gopi Krishnan Rajbahadur , Bram Adams , Ahmed E. Hassan

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) is an emerging standard designed to enable seamless interaction between Large Language Model (LLM) applications and external tools or resources. Within a short period, thousands of MCP services have been…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Hao Song , Yiming Shen , Wenxuan Luo , Leixin Guo , Ting Chen , Jiashui Wang , Beibei Li , Xiaosong Zhang , Jiachi Chen

As Model Context Protocol (MCP) introduces an easy-to-use ecosystem for users and developers, it also brings underexplored safety risks. Its decentralized architecture, which separates clients and servers, poses unique challenges for…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Huihao Jing , Haoran Li , Wenbin Hu , Qi Hu , Heli Xu , Tianshu Chu , Peizhao Hu , Yangqiu Song

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) replaces static, developer-controlled API integrations with more dynamic, user-driven agent systems, which also introduces new security risks. As MCP adoption grows across community servers and major…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-11-27 Herman Errico , Jiquan Ngiam , Shanita Sojan

Model Context Protocol (MCP) has become a key infrastructure for connecting LLMs with external tools, scaling to 10,000+ MCP servers with diverse tools. Unfortunately, there is still a large gap between real-world MCP usage and current…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-27 Guozhao Mo , Wenliang Zhong , Jiawei Chen , Qianhao Yuan , Xuanang Chen , Yaojie Lu , Hongyu Lin , Ben He , Xianpei Han , Le Sun

Current Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) rely on centralized architectures and often suffer from poor alignment between the input task and their fixed visual encoding modules, which limits performance on diverse and dynamic visual…

Networking and Internet Architecture · Computer Science 2025-08-05 Yongjie Zeng , Hongyang Du

The Model Context Protocol (MCP) enhances large language models (LLMs) by integrating external tools, enabling dynamic aggregation of real-time data to improve task execution. However, its non-isolated execution context introduces critical…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-11 Haoran Shi , Hongwei Yao , Shuo Shao , Shaopeng Jiao , Ziqi Peng , Zhan Qin , Cong Wang