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Test-time adaptation (TTA) for large language models (LLMs) updates model parameters at inference time using signals available at deployment. This paper focuses on a common yet under-explored regime: unsupervised, sample-specific TTA, where…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-11 Longhuan Xu , Cunjian Chen , Feng Yin

Continual Test-Time Adaptation (CTTA) aims to adapt models to sequentially changing domains during testing, relying on pseudo-labels for self-adaptation. However, incorrect pseudo-labels can accumulate, leading to performance degradation.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-06 Fan Lyu , Hanyu Zhao , Ziqi Shi , Ye Liu , Fuyuan Hu , Zhang Zhang , Liang Wang

Self-training based unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) has shown great potential to address the problem of domain shift, when applying a trained deep learning model in a source domain to unlabeled target domains. However, while the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-06-24 Xiaofeng Liu , Fangxu Xing , Maureen Stone , Jiachen Zhuo , Reese Timothy , Jerry L. Prince , Georges El Fakhri , Jonghye Woo

Continual adaptation to domain shifts at test time (CTTA) is crucial for enhancing the intelligence of deep learning enabled IoT applications. However, prevailing TTA methods, which typically update all batch normalization (BN) layers,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-03-03 Youbing Hu , Yun Cheng , Zimu Zhou , Anqi Lu , Zhiqiang Cao , Zhijun Li

Test-Time adaptation (TTA) aims to enhance model robustness against distribution shifts through rapid model adaptation during inference. While existing TTA methods often rely on entropy-based unsupervised training and achieve promising…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-05-08 Zixuan Hu , Yichun Hu , Ling-Yu Duan

Experiencing domain shifts during test-time is nearly inevitable in practice and likely results in a severe performance degradation. To overcome this issue, test-time adaptation continues to update the initial source model during…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2022-11-10 Robert A. Marsden , Mario Döbler , Bin Yang

Continual Test Time Adaptation (CTTA) is a task that requires a source pre-trained model to continually adapt to new scenarios with changing target distributions. Existing CTTA methods primarily focus on mitigating the challenges of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-06-25 Jinlong Li , Dong Zhao , Qi Zang , Zequn Jie , Lin Ma , Nicu Sebe

Fully Test-Time Adaptation (FTTA) addresses domain shifts without access to source data and training protocols of the pre-trained models. Traditional strategies that align source and target feature distributions are infeasible in FTTA due…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-11-18 Ponhvoan Srey , Yaxin Shi , Hangwei Qian , Jing Li , Ivor W. Tsang

Training on test-time data enables deep learning models to adapt to dynamic environmental changes, enhancing their practical applicability. Online adaptation from source to target domains is promising but it remains highly reliant on the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-01 Jisu Han , Jihee Park , Dongyoon Han , Wonjun Hwang

Test-time adaptation (TTA) enables a pre-trained model to adapt online to an unlabeled test stream under distribution shift. While most TTA research focuses on the adaptation objective, practical streams also depend critically on the memory…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Shyma Alhuwaider , Yasmeen Alsaedy , Merey Ramazanova , Silvio Giancola , Bernard Ghanem

Test-Time Adaptation (TTA) enables real-time adaptation to domain shifts without off-line retraining. Recent TTA methods have predominantly explored additive approaches that introduce lightweight modules for feature refinement. Recently, a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-03-30 Youngjun Song , Hyeongyu Kim , Dosik Hwang

Learning representation from unlabeled time series data is a challenging problem. Most existing self-supervised and unsupervised approaches in the time-series domain do not capture low and high-frequency features at the same time. Further,…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-11-27 Vandan Gorade , Azad Singh , Deepak Mishra

Test-Time Adaptation (TTA) for black-box models accessible only via APIs remains a largely unexplored challenge. Existing approaches such as post-hoc output refinement offer limited adaptive capacity, while Zeroth-Order Optimization (ZOO)…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-04-20 Yunbei Zhang , Shuaicheng Niu , Chengyi Cai , Feng Liu , Jihun Hamm

While test-time adaptation (TTA) methods effectively address domain shifts by dynamically adapting pre-trained models to target domain data during online inference, their application to 3D point clouds is hindered by their irregular and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-07-25 Xin Wei , Qin Yang , Yijie Fang , Mingrui Zhu , Nannan Wang

This article presents a comprehensive survey of online test-time adaptation (OTTA), focusing on effectively adapting machine learning models to distributionally different target data upon batch arrival. Despite the recent proliferation of…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-07-19 Zixin Wang , Yadan Luo , Liang Zheng , Zhuoxiao Chen , Sen Wang , Zi Huang

We introduce an unsupervised domain adaption (UDA) strategy that combines multiple image translations, ensemble learning and self-supervised learning in one coherent approach. We focus on one of the standard tasks of UDA in which a semantic…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-07-14 Fabrizio J. Piva , Gijs Dubbelman

Models capable of leveraging unlabelled data are crucial in overcoming large distribution gaps between the acquired datasets across different imaging devices and configurations. In this regard, self-training techniques based on…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-08-01 Negin Ghamsarian , Javier Gamazo Tejero , Pablo Márquez Neila , Sebastian Wolf , Martin Zinkernagel , Klaus Schoeffmann , Raphael Sznitman

Test-time augmentation (TTA) is a well-known technique employed during the testing phase of computer vision tasks. It involves aggregating multiple augmented versions of input data. Combining predictions using a simple average formulation…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-28 Zeinab Sherkatghanad , Moloud Abdar , Mohammadreza Bakhtyari , Pawel Plawiak , Vladimir Makarenkov

Test-time adaptation (TTA) methods, which generally rely on the model's predictions (e.g., entropy minimization) to adapt the source pretrained model to the unlabeled target domain, suffer from noisy signals originating from 1) incorrect or…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-09-06 Jungsoo Lee , Debasmit Das , Jaegul Choo , Sungha Choi

We introduce Train/Test-Time Adaptation with Retrieval (${\rm T^3AR}$), a method to adapt models both at train and test time by means of a retrieval module and a searchable pool of external samples. Before inference, ${\rm T^3AR}$ adapts a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-03-28 Luca Zancato , Alessandro Achille , Tian Yu Liu , Matthew Trager , Pramuditha Perera , Stefano Soatto
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