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Recent advances confirm that large language models (LLMs) can achieve state-of-the-art performance across various tasks. However, due to the resource-intensive nature of training LLMs from scratch, it is urgent and crucial to protect the…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-03-04 Zhiguang Yang , Hanzhou Wu

Large language models (LLMs) are often modified after release through post-processing such as post-training or quantization, which makes it challenging to determine whether one model is derived from another. Existing provenance detection…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-20 Yuepeng Hu , Zhengyuan Jiang , Mengyuan Li , Osama Ahmed , Zhicong Huang , Cheng Hong , Neil Gong

Fingerprinting refers to the process of identifying underlying Machine Learning (ML) models of AI Systemts, such as Large Language Models (LLMs), by analyzing their unique characteristics or patterns, much like a human fingerprint. The…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-10 Devansh Bhardwaj , Naman Mishra

This paper presents a survey and taxonomy of LLM fingerprinting and watermarking for identity, ownership verification, provenance, and generated-content attribution. Large language models (LLMs) require substantial investments in data,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Bing Liu , Shunping Wang , Yufan Zhu , Xinyi Yu , Jing Huang , Linkang Du , Hongbin Pei , Wei Luo

The exorbitant cost of training Large language models (LLMs) from scratch makes it essential to fingerprint the models to protect intellectual property via ownership authentication and to ensure downstream users and developers comply with…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-04-04 Jiashu Xu , Fei Wang , Mingyu Derek Ma , Pang Wei Koh , Chaowei Xiao , Muhao Chen

Large language models (LLMs) have distinct and consistent stylistic fingerprints, even when prompted to write in different writing styles. Detecting these fingerprints is important for many reasons, among them protecting intellectual…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-04 Yehonatan Bitton , Elad Bitton , Shai Nisan

As content generated by Large Language Model (LLM) has grown exponentially, the ability to accurately identify and fingerprint such text has become increasingly crucial. In this work, we introduce a novel black-box approach for…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-08-07 Dmitri Iourovitski , Sanat Sharma , Rakshak Talwar

Current benchmarks for Large Language Models (LLMs) primarily focus on performance metrics, often failing to capture the nuanced behavioral characteristics that differentiate them. This paper introduces a novel ``Behavioral Fingerprinting''…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-08 Zehua Pei , Hui-Ling Zhen , Ying Zhang , Zhiyuan Yang , Xing Li , Xianzhi Yu , Mingxuan Yuan , Bei Yu

The widespread deployment of large language models (LLMs) has intensified concerns around intellectual property (IP) protection, as model theft and unauthorized redistribution become increasingly feasible. To address this, model…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-15 Zhenhua Xu , Xixiang Zhao , Xubin Yue , Shengwei Tian , Changting Lin , Meng Han

Protecting the intellectual property of large language models (LLMs) is a critical challenge due to the proliferation of unauthorized derivative models. We introduce a novel fingerprinting framework that leverages the behavioral patterns…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-11 Zhenyu Xu , Victor S. Sheng

The widespread adoption of Large Language Model (LLM) in commercial and research settings has intensified the need for robust intellectual property protection. Backdoor-based LLM fingerprinting has emerged as a promising solution for this…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-09 Hang Fu , Wanli Peng , Yinghan Zhou , Jiaxuan Wu , Juan Wen , Yiming Xue

Fingerprinting large language models (LLMs) is essential for verifying model ownership, ensuring authenticity, and preventing misuse. Traditional fingerprinting methods often require significant computational overhead or white-box…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-15 Jiacheng Cai , Jiahao Yu , Yangguang Shao , Yuhang Wu

We introduce LLMmap, a first-generation fingerprinting technique targeted at LLM-integrated applications. LLMmap employs an active fingerprinting approach, sending carefully crafted queries to the application and analyzing the responses to…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-12 Dario Pasquini , Evgenios M. Kornaropoulos , Giuseppe Ateniese

Fingerprinting Large Language Models (LLMs)is essential for provenance verification and model attribution. Existing fingerprinting methods are primarily evaluated after fine-tuning, where models have already acquired stable signatures from…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-15 Yao Tong , Haonan Wang , Siquan Li , Kenji Kawaguchi , Tianyang Hu

The development of large language models (LLMs) is costly and has significant commercial value. Consequently, preventing unauthorized appropriation of open-source LLMs and protecting developers' intellectual property rights have become…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-02 Yiheng Liu , Junhao Ning , Sichen Xia , Haiyang Sun , Yang Yang , Hanyang Chi , Xiaohui Gao , Ning Qiang , Bao Ge , Junwei Han , Xintao Hu

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed as agents that orchestrate tasks and integrate external tools to execute complex workflows. We demonstrate that these interactive behaviors leave distinctive fingerprints in encrypted…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-09 Yixiang Zhang , Xinhao Deng , Zhongyi Gu , Yihao Chen , Ke Xu , Qi Li , Jianping Wu

It has been shown that finetuned transformers and other supervised detectors effectively distinguish between human and machine-generated text in some situations arXiv:2305.13242, but we find that even simple classifiers on top of n-gram and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-24 Hope McGovern , Rickard Stureborg , Yoshi Suhara , Dimitris Alikaniotis

This paper studies the integration off Large Language Models into cybersecurity tools and protocols. The main issue discussed in this paper is how traditional rule-based and signature based security systems are not enough to deal with…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-11-07 Raunak Somani , Aswani Kumar Cherukuri

Large language models (LLMs) have achieved impressive performance across natural language tasks and are increasingly deployed in real-world applications. Despite extensive safety alignment efforts, recent studies show that such alignment is…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-02 Yinzhi Zhao , Ming Wang , Shi Feng , Xiaocui Yang , Daling Wang , Yifei Zhang

AI developers are releasing large language models (LLMs) under a variety of different licenses. Many of these licenses restrict the ways in which the models or their outputs may be used. This raises the question how license violations may…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-20 Yun-Yun Tsai , Chuan Guo , Junfeng Yang , Laurens van der Maaten
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