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Large language models (LLMs) can spell out tokens character by character with high accuracy, yet they struggle with more complex character-level tasks, such as identifying compositional subcomponents within tokens. In this work, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-13 Tatsuya Hiraoka , Kentaro Inui

Large language models (LLMs) trained with canonical tokenization exhibit surprising robustness to non-canonical inputs such as character-level tokenization, yet the mechanisms underlying this robustness remain unclear. We study this…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-12 Zhipeng Yang , Shu Yang , Lijie Hu , Di Wang

Large Language Model (LLM) watermarking embeds detectable signals into generated text for copyright protection, misuse prevention, and content detection. While prior studies evaluate robustness using watermark removal attacks, these methods…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-09-16 Zhaoxi Zhang , Xiaomei Zhang , Yanjun Zhang , He Zhang , Shirui Pan , Bo Liu , Asif Qumer Gill , Leo Yu Zhang

Foundation models, such as Large language Models (LLMs), have attracted significant amount of interest due to their large number of applications. However, when handling tasks involving repetitive sub-tasks and/or deceptive contents, such as…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-07-04 Yizhou Zhang , Lun Du , Defu Cao , Qiang Fu , Yan Liu

Tasks that require character-level reasoning, such as counting or locating characters within words, remain challenging for contemporary language models. A common conjecture is that language models' reliance on subword units, rather than…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-08 Omri Uzan , Yuval Pinter

Despite their remarkable progress across diverse domains, Large Language Models (LLMs) consistently fail at simple character-level tasks, such as counting letters in words, due to a fundamental limitation: tokenization. In this work, we…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-09-17 Adrian Cosma , Stefan Ruseti , Emilian Radoi , Mihai Dascalu

Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities in language understanding and generation. Nonetheless, it was also witnessed that LLMs tend to produce inaccurate responses to specific queries. This deficiency can be traced…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-05-16 Dixuan Wang , Yanda Li , Junyuan Jiang , Zepeng Ding , Ziqin Luo , Guochao Jiang , Jiaqing Liang , Deqing Yang

While showing sophisticated reasoning abilities, large language models (LLMs) still struggle with long-horizon decision-making tasks due to deficient exploration and long-term credit assignment, especially in sparse-reward scenarios.…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-05-27 Zican Hu , Wei Liu , Xiaoye Qu , Xiangyu Yue , Chunlin Chen , Zhi Wang , Yu Cheng

This paper investigates controllable generation for large language models (LLMs) with prompt-based control, focusing on Lexically Constrained Generation (LCG). We systematically evaluate the performance of LLMs on satisfying lexical…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-08 Bingxuan Li , Yiwei Wang , Tao Meng , Kai-Wei Chang , Nanyun Peng

Enlarging the context window of large language models (LLMs) has become a crucial research area, particularly for applications involving extremely long texts. In this work, we propose a novel training-free framework for processing long…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-15 Zihan Zhou , Chong Li , Xinyi Chen , Shuo Wang , Yu Chao , Zhili Li , Haoyu Wang , Rongqiao An , Qi Shi , Zhixing Tan , Xu Han , Xiaodong Shi , Zhiyuan Liu , Maosong Sun

This work investigates the resilience of contemporary large language models (LLMs) against frequent character-level perturbations. We examine three types of character-level perturbations including introducing numerous typos within words,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-29 Anyuan Zhuo , Xuefei Ning , Ningyuan Li , Jingyi Zhu , Yu Wang , Pinyan Lu

While model architecture and training objectives are well-studied, tokenization, particularly in multilingual contexts, remains a relatively neglected aspect of Large Language Model (LLM) development. Existing tokenizers often exhibit high…

Large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable potential for problem solving, with open source models achieving increasingly impressive performance on benchmarks measuring areas from logical reasoning to mathematical ability. Ensembling…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-17 Kevin Gu , Eva Tuecke , Dmitriy Katz , Raya Horesh , David Alvarez-Melis , Mikhail Yurochkin

Natural Language Processing (NLP) models are used for text-related tasks such as classification and generation. To complete these tasks, input data is first tokenized from human-readable text into a format the model can understand, enabling…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-10 Kasimir Schulz , Kenneth Yeung , Kieran Evans

Large Language Models (LLMs) have recently emerged as a powerful paradigm for Knowledge Graph Completion (KGC), offering strong reasoning and generalization capabilities beyond traditional embedding-based approaches. However, existing…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-14 Wenbin Guo , Xin Wang , Jiaoyan Chen , Lingbing Guo , Zhao Li , Zirui Chen

Diffusion-based large language models (dLLMs) have shown promising performance across various reasoning tasks, establishing themselves as an alternative to autoregressive large language models (LLMs). Unlike autoregressive LLMs that…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-02 Xiangzhong Luo , Yilin An , Zhicheng Yu , Weichen Liu , Xu Yang

Large language models (LLMs) are primarily designed to understand unstructured text. When directly applied to structured formats such as tabular data, they may struggle to discern inherent relationships and overlook critical patterns. While…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-10-11 Natraj Raman , Sumitra Ganesh , Manuela Veloso

Chinese Spell Checking (CSC) aims to detect and correct spelling errors in sentences. Despite Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit robust capabilities and are widely applied in various tasks, their performance on CSC is often…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-29 Kunting Li , Yong Hu , Liang He , Fandong Meng , Jie Zhou

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have significantly enhanced their reasoning capabilities. However, they continue to struggle with basic character-level tasks, such as counting letters in words, a problem rooted in their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-15 Shuyang Hou , Yi Hu , Muhan Zhang

Recent advances in generative AI have been largely driven by large language models (LLMs), deep neural networks that operate over discrete units called tokens. To represent text, the vast majority of LLMs use words or word fragments as the…

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