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The Large Language Model (LLM) watermark is a newly emerging technique that shows promise in addressing concerns surrounding LLM copyright, monitoring AI-generated text, and preventing its misuse. The LLM watermark scheme commonly includes…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-05-31 Zhaoxi Zhang , Xiaomei Zhang , Yanjun Zhang , Leo Yu Zhang , Chao Chen , Shengshan Hu , Asif Gill , Shirui Pan

Reasoning Large Language Models (RLLMs) excelling in complex tasks present unique challenges for digital watermarking, as existing methods often disrupt logical coherence or incur high computational costs. Token-based watermarking…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-02 Shuliang Liu , Xingyu Li , Hongyi Liu , Dong Fang , Yibo Yan , Bingchen Duan , Qi Zheng , Lingfeng Su , Xuming Hu

This paper introduces EmMark,a novel watermarking framework for protecting the intellectual property (IP) of embedded large language models deployed on resource-constrained edge devices. To address the IP theft risks posed by malicious…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-02-29 Ruisi Zhang , Farinaz Koushanfar

Watermarking large language models (LLMs) is vital for preventing their misuse, including the fabrication of fake news, plagiarism, and spam. It is especially important to watermark LLM-generated code, as it often contains intellectual…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-18 Li Lin , Siyuan Xin , Yang Cao , Xiaochun Cao

With the increasing use of large-language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT, watermarking has emerged as a promising approach for tracing machine-generated content. However, research on LLM watermarking often relies on simple perplexity or…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-12-06 Karanpartap Singh , James Zou

The impressive performances of Large Language Models (LLMs) and their immense potential for commercialization have given rise to serious concerns over the Intellectual Property (IP) of their training data. In particular, the synthetic texts…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-09-26 Jingtan Wang , Xinyang Lu , Zitong Zhao , Zhongxiang Dai , Chuan-Sheng Foo , See-Kiong Ng , Bryan Kian Hsiang Low

Given a text, can we determine whether it was generated by a large language model (LLM) or by a human? A widely studied approach to this problem is watermarking. We propose an undetectable and elementary watermarking scheme in the closed…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-06-26 Pedro Abdalla , Roman Vershynin

Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success across a wide range of natural language processing tasks, demonstrating human-level performance in text generation, reasoning, and question answering. However, training such…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-11-17 Yanbo Dai , Zongjie Li , Zhenlan Ji , Shuai Wang

Large language model (LLM) unlearning is critical in real-world applications where it is necessary to efficiently remove the influence of private, copyrighted, or harmful data from some users. Existing utility-centric unlearning metrics…

Since ChatGPT was introduced in November 2022, embedding (nearly) unnoticeable statistical signals into text generated by large language models (LLMs), also known as watermarking, has been used as a principled approach to provable detection…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2025-08-28 Xiang Li , Feng Ruan , Huiyuan Wang , Qi Long , Weijie J. Su

Natural language generation (NLG) applications have gained great popularity due to the powerful deep learning techniques and large training corpus. The deployed NLG models may be stolen or used without authorization, while watermarking has…

Multimedia · Computer Science 2021-12-13 Tao Xiang , Chunlong Xie , Shangwei Guo , Jiwei Li , Tianwei Zhang

Watermarking technology is a method used to trace the usage of content generated by large language models. Sentence-level watermarking aids in preserving the semantic integrity within individual sentences while maintaining greater…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-25 Junyan Zhang , Shuliang Liu , Aiwei Liu , Yubo Gao , Jungang Li , Xiaojie Gu , Xuming Hu

With the advent of large language models (LLMs), numerous software service providers (SSPs) are dedicated to developing LLMs customized for code generation tasks, such as CodeLlama and Copilot. However, these LLMs can be leveraged by…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-04-22 Kaiwen Ning , Jiachi Chen , Qingyuan Zhong , Tao Zhang , Yanlin Wang , Wei Li , Jingwen Zhang , Jianxing Yu , Yuming Feng , Weizhe Zhang , Zibin Zheng

As large language models (LLMs) become integral to applications such as question answering and content creation, reliable content attribution has become increasingly important. Watermarking is a promising approach, but most existing methods…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Ya Jiang , Massieh Kordi Boroujeny , Surender Suresh Kumar , Kai Zeng

Text watermarking algorithms are crucial for protecting the copyright of textual content. Historically, their capabilities and application scenarios were limited. However, recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-08-12 Aiwei Liu , Leyi Pan , Yijian Lu , Jingjing Li , Xuming Hu , Xi Zhang , Lijie Wen , Irwin King , Hui Xiong , Philip S. Yu

We demonstrate that while the current approaches for language model watermarking are effective for open-ended generation, they are inadequate at watermarking LM outputs for constrained generation tasks with low-entropy output spaces.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Nghia T. Le , Alan Ritter , Kartik Goyal

Generative images have proliferated on Web platforms in social media and online copyright distribution scenarios, and semantic watermarking has increasingly been integrated into diffusion models to support reliable provenance tracking and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-26 Zheng Gao , Xiaoyu Li , Zhicheng Bao , Xiaoyan Feng , Jiaojiao Jiang

With the rapid development of cloud-based services, large language models have become increasingly accessible through various web platforms. However, this accessibility has also led to growing risks of model abuse. LLM watermarking has…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Hao Li , Yubing Ren , Yanan Cao , Yingjie Li , Fang Fang , Shi Wang , Li Guo

Watermarking technology has gained significant attention due to the increasing importance of intellectual property (IP) rights, particularly with the growing deployment of large language models (LLMs) on billions resource-constrained edge…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-14 Qingxiao Guo , Xinjie Zhu , Yilong Ma , Hui Jin , Yunhao Wang , Weifeng Zhang , Xiaobing Guo

Large language model (LLM) watermarks enable authentication of text provenance, curb misuse of machine-generated text, and promote trust in AI systems. Current watermarks operate by changing the next-token predictions output by an LLM. The…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-03 Dor Tsur , Carol Xuan Long , Claudio Mayrink Verdun , Hsiang Hsu , Chen-Fu Chen , Haim Permuter , Sajani Vithana , Flavio P. Calmon
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