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This paper investigates the information encoded in the embeddings of large language models (LLMs). We conduct simulations to analyze the representation entropy and discover a power law relationship with model sizes. Building upon this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-07 Zhiquan Tan , Chenghai Li , Weiran Huang

Vector representations of contextual embeddings learned by pre-trained large language models (LLMs) are effective in various downstream tasks in numerical domains such as time series forecasting. Despite their significant benefits, the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-24 Rashed Shelim , Shengzhe Xu , Walid Saad , Naren Ramakrishnan

In this work, we investigate how Large Language Models (LLMs) adapt their internal representations when encountering inputs of increasing difficulty, quantified as the degree of out-of-distribution (OOD) shift. We reveal a consistent and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-20 Mingyu Jin , Yutong Yin , Jingcheng Niu , Qingcheng Zeng , Wujiang Xu , Mengnan Du , Wei Cheng , Zhaoran Wang , Tianlong Chen , Dimitris N. Metaxas

Compressing word embeddings is important for deploying NLP models in memory-constrained settings. However, understanding what makes compressed embeddings perform well on downstream tasks is challenging---existing measures of compression…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-01-16 Avner May , Jian Zhang , Tri Dao , Christopher Ré

Recently, large language models (LLMs) have advanced recommendation systems (RSs), and recent works have begun to explore how to integrate LLMs into industrial RSs. While most approaches deploy LLMs offline to generate and pre-cache…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Yunjia Xi , Menghui Zhu , Jianghao Lin , Bo Chen , Ruiming Tang , Yong Yu , Weinan Zhang

Model compression techniques allow to significantly reduce the computational cost associated with data processing by deep neural networks with only a minor decrease in average accuracy. Simultaneously, reducing the model size may have a…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-09-28 Sebastian Cygert , Andrzej Czyżewski

The rise of large language models (LLMs) is revolutionizing information retrieval, question answering, summarization, and code generation tasks. However, in addition to confidently presenting factually inaccurate information at times (known…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-04-26 Henry Gilbert , Michael Sandborn , Douglas C. Schmidt , Jesse Spencer-Smith , Jules White

Repository-level code intelligence tasks require large language models (LLMs) to process long, multi-file contexts. Such inputs introduce three challenges: crucial context can be obscured by noise, truncated due to limited windows, and…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2026-04-16 Jia Feng , Zhanyue Qin , Cuiyun Gao , Ruiqi Wang , Chaozheng Wang , Yingwei Ma , Xiaoyuan Xie

The adoption of Transformer-based models in natural language processing (NLP) has led to great success using a massive number of parameters. However, due to deployment constraints in edge devices, there has been a rising interest in the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-08-04 Klaudia Bałazy , Mohammadreza Banaei , Rémi Lebret , Jacek Tabor , Karl Aberer

Large Language Models (LLMs) have been shown to achieve impressive results for many reasoning-based NLP tasks, suggesting a degree of deductive reasoning capability. However, it remains unclear to which extent LLMs, in both informal and…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-26 Fabian Hoppe , Filip Ilievski , Jan-Christoph Kalo

Large Language Models (LLMs) do not differentially represent numbers, which are pervasive in text. In contrast, neuroscience research has identified distinct neural representations for numbers and words. In this work, we investigate how…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-01-10 Raj Sanjay Shah , Vijay Marupudi , Reba Koenen , Khushi Bhardwaj , Sashank Varma

Neural machine translation (MT) models achieve strong results across a variety of settings, but it is widely believed that they are highly sensitive to "noisy" inputs, such as spelling errors, abbreviations, and other formatting issues. In…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-06 Ben Peters , André F. T. Martins

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly deployed on complex reasoning tasks, yet little is known about their ability to internally evaluate problem difficulty, which is an essential capability for adaptive reasoning and efficient…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-10-14 Sunbowen Lee , Qingyu Yin , Chak Tou Leong , Jialiang Zhang , Yicheng Gong , Shiwen Ni , Min Yang , Xiaoyu Shen

Sentence embeddings produced by Pretrained Language Models (PLMs) have received wide attention from the NLP community due to their superior performance when representing texts in numerous downstream applications. However, the high…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-22 Gaifan Zhang , Yi Zhou , Danushka Bollegala

Large Language Models (LLMs) have been achieving competent performance on a wide range of downstream tasks, yet existing work shows that inference on structured data is challenging for LLMs. This is because LLMs need to either understand…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-04 Younghun Lee , Sungchul Kim , Ryan A. Rossi , Tong Yu , Xiang Chen

Understanding what defines a good representation in large language models (LLMs) is fundamental to both theoretical understanding and practical applications. In this paper, we investigate the quality of intermediate representations in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-13 Oscar Skean , Md Rifat Arefin , Yann LeCun , Ravid Shwartz-Ziv

Representations from large language models (LLMs) are known to be dominated by a small subset of dimensions with exceedingly high variance. Previous works have argued that although ablating these outlier dimensions in LLM representations…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-01-24 William Rudman , Catherine Chen , Carsten Eickhoff

Large Language Models (LLMs) possess outstanding capabilities in addressing various natural language processing (NLP) tasks. However, the sheer size of these models poses challenges in terms of storage, training and inference due to the…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-18 Shuzhou Yuan , Ercong Nie , Bolei Ma , Michael Färber

Although behavioral studies have documented numerical reasoning errors in large language models (LLMs), the underlying representational mechanisms remain unclear. We hypothesize that numerical attributes occupy shared latent subspaces and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-11-11 Hirohane Takagi , Gouki Minegishi , Shota Kizawa , Issey Sukeda , Hitomi Yanaka

The geometric evolution of token representations in large language models (LLMs) presents a fundamental paradox: while human language inherently organizes semantic information in low-dimensional spaces ($\sim 10^1$ dimensions), modern LLMs…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-31 Zhuo-Yang Song , Zeyu Li , Qing-Hong Cao , Ming-xing Luo , Hua Xing Zhu