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Reinforcement learning (RL) is a powerful technique for training intelligent agents, but understanding why these agents make specific decisions can be quite challenging. This lack of transparency in RL models has been a long-standing…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-02 Wenhao Lu , Xufeng Zhao , Thilo Fryen , Jae Hee Lee , Mengdi Li , Sven Magg , Stefan Wermter

Value function is the central notion of Reinforcement Learning (RL). Value estimation, especially with function approximation, can be challenging since it involves the stochasticity of environmental dynamics and reward signals that can be…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-03-04 Hongyao Tang , Jianye Hao , Guangyong Chen , Pengfei Chen , Chen Chen , Yaodong Yang , Luo Zhang , Wulong Liu , Zhaopeng Meng

Future reward estimation is a core component of reinforcement learning agents; i.e., Q-value and state-value functions, predicting an agent's sum of future rewards. Their scalar output, however, obfuscates when or what individual future…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-08-16 Mark Towers , Yali Du , Christopher Freeman , Timothy J. Norman

Explaining the behaviour of intelligent agents learned by reinforcement learning (RL) to humans is challenging yet crucial due to their incomprehensible proprioceptive states, variational intermediate goals, and resultant unpredictability.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-07 Wenhao Lu , Xufeng Zhao , Sven Magg , Martin Gromniak , Mengdi Li , Stefan Wermter

Reinforcement learning (RL) systems can be complex and non-interpretable, making it challenging for non-AI experts to understand or intervene in their decisions. This is due in part to the sequential nature of RL in which actions are chosen…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-04-16 Amal Alabdulkarim , Madhuri Singh , Gennie Mansi , Kaely Hall , Upol Ehsan , Mark O. Riedl

Explanation is a key component for the adoption of reinforcement learning (RL) in many real-world decision-making problems. In the literature, the explanation is often provided by saliency attribution to the features of the RL agent's…

Understanding a \textit{reinforcement learning} policy, which guides state-to-action mappings to maximize rewards, necessitates an accompanying explanation for human comprehension. In this paper, we introduce a set of \textit{linear…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-05-01 Mikihisa Yuasa , Huy T. Tran , Ramavarapu S. Sreenivas

Value functions are crucial for model-free Reinforcement Learning (RL) to obtain a policy implicitly or guide the policy updates. Value estimation heavily depends on the stochasticity of environmental dynamics and the quality of reward…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-05-28 Hongyao Tang , Jianye Hao , Guangyong Chen , Pengfei Chen , Zhaopeng Meng , Yaodong Yang , Li Wang

Emotions are intimately tied to motivation and the adaptation of behavior, and many animal species show evidence of emotions in their behavior. Therefore, emotions must be related to powerful mechanisms that aid survival, and, emotions must…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2018-07-26 Joost Broekens

Temporal difference learning (TD) is a foundational concept in reinforcement learning (RL), aimed at efficiently assessing a policy's value function. TD($\lambda$), a potent variant, incorporates a memory trace to distribute the prediction…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-13 Jianfei Ma

Explaining the behavior of reinforcement learning agents operating in sequential decision-making settings is challenging, as their behavior is affected by a dynamic environment and delayed rewards. Methods that help users understand the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-28 Yael Septon , Tobias Huber , Elisabeth André , Ofra Amir

We study reinforcement learning (RL) in the setting of continuous time and space, for an infinite horizon with a discounted objective and the underlying dynamics driven by a stochastic differential equation. Built upon recent advances in…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-19 Hanyang Zhao , Wenpin Tang , David D. Yao

Temporal difference (TD) learning is often used to update the estimate of the value function which is used by RL agents to extract useful policies. In this paper, we focus on value function estimation in continual reinforcement learning. We…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-20 Nishanth Anand , Doina Precup

Social goods, such as healthcare, smart city, and information networks, often produce ordered event data in continuous time. The generative processes of these event data can be very complex, requiring flexible models to capture their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-12-29 Shuang Li , Shuai Xiao , Shixiang Zhu , Nan Du , Yao Xie , Le Song

Why do reinforcement learning (RL) policies fail or succeed? This is a challenging question due to the complex, high-dimensional nature of agent-environment interactions. In this work, we take a causal perspective on explaining the behavior…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-07-22 Armin Kekić , Jan Schneider , Dieter Büchler , Bernhard Schölkopf , Michel Besserve

Reward engineering is an important aspect of reinforcement learning. Whether or not the user's intentions can be correctly encapsulated in the reward function can significantly impact the learning outcome. Current methods rely on manually…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2017-09-28 Xiao Li , Yao Ma , Calin Belta

In this paper, we tackle the challenging problem of delayed rewards in reinforcement learning (RL). While Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) has emerged as a leading Policy Gradient method, its performance can degrade under delayed rewards.…

Linear temporal logic (LTL) offers a simplified way of specifying tasks for policy optimization that may otherwise be difficult to describe with scalar reward functions. However, the standard RL framework can be too myopic to find maximally…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-06 Cameron Voloshin , Abhinav Verma , Yisong Yue

Value function approximation is a crucial module for policy evaluation in reinforcement learning when the state space is large or continuous. The present paper takes a generative perspective on policy evaluation via temporal-difference (TD)…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2021-12-03 Qin Lu , Georgios B. Giannakis

Building trust in reinforcement learning (RL) agents requires understanding why they make certain decisions, especially in high-stakes applications like robotics, healthcare, and finance. Existing explainability methods often focus on…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Rishav Rishav , Somjit Nath , Vincent Michalski , Samira Ebrahimi Kahou
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