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Shapley value is a classic notion from game theory, historically used to quantify the contributions of individuals within groups, and more recently applied to assign values to data points when training machine learning models. Despite its…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-02-28 Amirata Ghorbani , Michael P. Kim , James Zou

In allocation problems, a given set of goods are assigned to agents in such a way that the social welfare is maximised, that is, the largest possible global worth is achieved. When goods are indivisible, it is possible to use money…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2017-09-14 Francesco Lupia , Angelo Mendicelli , Andrea Ribichini , Francesco Scarcello , Marco Schaerf

Distributional data Shapley value (DShapley) has recently been proposed as a principled framework to quantify the contribution of individual datum in machine learning. DShapley develops the foundational game theory concept of Shapley values…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2021-02-19 Yongchan Kwon , Manuel A. Rivas , James Zou

With the widespread use of sophisticated machine learning models in sensitive applications, understanding their decision-making has become an essential task. Models trained on tabular data have witnessed significant progress in explanations…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-06-16 Aditya Lahiri , Kamran Alipour , Ehsan Adeli , Babak Salimi

We consider the dataset valuation problem, that is, the problem of quantifying the incremental gain, to some relevant pre-defined utility of a machine learning task, of aggregating an individual dataset to others. The Shapley value is a…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-02-25 Felipe Garrido-Lucero , Benjamin Heymann , Maxime Vono , Patrick Loiseau , Vianney Perchet

Researchers in explainable artificial intelligence have developed numerous methods for helping users understand the predictions of complex supervised learning models. By contrast, explaining the $\textit{uncertainty}$ of model outputs has…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2023-11-01 David S. Watson , Joshua O'Hara , Niek Tax , Richard Mudd , Ido Guy

Interpretability of learning algorithms is crucial for applications involving critical decisions, and variable importance is one of the main interpretation tools. Shapley effects are now widely used to interpret both tree ensembles and…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2022-02-03 Clément Bénard , Gérard Biau , Sébastien da Veiga , Erwan Scornet

The Shapley value concept from cooperative game theory has become a popular technique for interpreting ML models, but efficiently estimating these values remains challenging, particularly in the model-agnostic setting. Here, we revisit the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-04-26 Ian Covert , Su-In Lee

Feature attribution methods help make machine learning-based inference explainable by determining how much one or several features have contributed to a model's output. A particularly popular attribution method is based on the Shapley value…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-11-04 Filip Naudot , Tobias Sundqvist , Timotheus Kampik

The Shapley value is the solution concept in cooperative game theory that is most used in both theoretical as practical settings. Unfortunately, computing the Shapley value is computationally intractable in general. This paper focuses on…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2022-08-30 Tom C. van der Zanden , Hans L. Bodlaender , Herbert J. M. Hamers

Cohort Shapley value is a model-free method of variable importance grounded in game theory that does not use any unobserved and potentially impossible feature combinations. We use it to evaluate algorithmic fairness, using the well known…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-20 Masayoshi Mase , Art B. Owen , Benjamin B. Seiler

We study a class of probabilistic cooperative games which can be treated as an extension of the classical cooperative games with transferable utilities. The coalitions have an exogenous probability of being realized. This probability…

Theoretical Economics · Economics 2023-08-08 Surajit Borkotokey , Sujata Gowala , Rajnish Kumar

In explainable machine learning, local post-hoc explanation algorithms and inherently interpretable models are often seen as competing approaches. This work offers a partial reconciliation between the two by establishing a correspondence…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-24 Sebastian Bordt , Ulrike von Luxburg

Collaborative machine learning enables multiple data owners to jointly train models for improved predictive performance. However, ensuring incentive compatibility and fair contribution-based rewards remains a critical challenge. Prior work…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-10-16 Björn Filter , Ralf Möller , Özgür Lütfü Özçep

The latest developments in AI focus on agentic systems where artificial and human agents cooperate to realize global goals. An example is collaborative learning, which aims to train a global model based on data from individual agents. A…

Computer Science and Game Theory · Computer Science 2025-08-20 Björn Filter , Ralf Möller , Özgür Lütfü Özçep

With origins in game theory, probabilistic values like Shapley values, Banzhaf values, and semi-values have emerged as a central tool in explainable AI. They are used for feature attribution, data attribution, data valuation, and more.…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-14 R. Teal Witter , Yurong Liu , Christopher Musco

Shapley values have emerged as a widely accepted and trustworthy tool, grounded in theoretical axioms, for addressing challenges posed by black-box models like deep neural networks. However, computing Shapley values encounters exponential…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-24 Borui Zhang , Baotong Tian , Wenzhao Zheng , Jie Zhou , Jiwen Lu

This paper focuses on the fundamental challenge of partitioning input variables in attribution methods for Explainable AI, particularly in Shapley value-based approaches. Previous methods always compute attributions given a predefined…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-25 Xinhao Zheng , Huiqi Deng , Quanshi Zhang

Explainable AI (XAI) is critical for ensuring transparency, accountability, and trust in machine learning systems as black-box models are increasingly deployed within high-stakes domains. Among XAI methods, Shapley values are widely used…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-19 Jiaxin Xu , Hung Chau , Angela Burden

There is much interest lately in explainability in statistics and machine learning. One aspect of explainability is to quantify the importance of various features (or covariates). Two popular methods for defining variable importance are…

Methodology · Statistics 2023-03-13 Isabella Verdinelli , Larry Wasserman