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Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) has been positioned by recent literature as the canonical method for the RL part of Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF). PPO performs well empirically but has a heuristic motivation and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-10 Dipan Maity

Reinforcement learning is widely used to improve the reasoning ability of large language models, especially when answers can be automatically checked. Standard GRPO-style training updates the model using only the current step, while full…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Ismam Nur Swapnil , Aranya Saha , Tanvir Ahmed Khan , Mohammad Ariful Haque , Ser-Nam Lim

Existing studies on constrained reinforcement learning (RL) may obtain a well-performing policy in the training environment. However, when deployed in a real environment, it may easily violate constraints that were originally satisfied…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Zhongchang Sun , Sihong He , Fei Miao , Shaofeng Zou

The objective in a traditional reinforcement learning (RL) problem is to find a policy that optimizes the expected value of a performance metric such as the infinite-horizon cumulative discounted or long-run average cost/reward. In…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-05-25 Prashanth L. A. , Michael Fu

Ensuring safety is a critical challenge in applying Reinforcement Learning (RL) to real-world scenarios. Constrained Reinforcement Learning (CRL) addresses this by maximizing returns under predefined constraints, typically formulated as the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Shiqing Gao , Yihang Zhou , Shuai Shao , Haoyu Luo , Yiheng Bing , Jiaxin Ding , Luoyi Fu , Xinbing Wang

Uncertainty estimation for Reinforcement Learning (RL) is a critical component in control tasks where agents must balance safe exploration and efficient learning. While deep neural networks have enabled breakthroughs in RL, they often lack…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-22 Matthijs van der Lende , Juan Cardenas-Cartagena

Regulating the importance ratio is critical for the training stability of Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) based frameworks. However, prevailing ratio control methods, such as hard clipping, suffer from non-differentiable…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Hongjun Wang , Wei Liu , Weibo Gu , Xing Sun , Kai Han

Merely pursuing performance may adversely affect the safety, while a conservative policy for safe exploration will degrade the performance. How to balance the safety and performance in learning-based control problems is an interesting yet…

Systems and Control · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-01-28 Xinyang Wang , Hongwei Zhang , Shimin Wang , Wei Xiao , Martin Guay

The field of risk-constrained reinforcement learning (RCRL) has been developed to effectively reduce the likelihood of worst-case scenarios by explicitly handling risk-measure-based constraints. However, the nonlinearity of risk measures…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-30 Dohyeong Kim , Taehyun Cho , Seungyub Han , Hojun Chung , Kyungjae Lee , Songhwai Oh

Safe reinforcement learning (RL) studies problems where an intelligent agent has to not only maximize reward but also avoid exploring unsafe areas. In this study, we propose CUP, a novel policy optimization method based on Constrained…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-11-10 Long Yang , Jiaming Ji , Juntao Dai , Linrui Zhang , Binbin Zhou , Pengfei Li , Yaodong Yang , Gang Pan

Reinforcement learning (RL) has emerged as the predominant paradigm for training large language model (LLM)-based AI agents. However, existing backbone RL algorithms lack verified convergence guarantees in agentic scenarios, especially in…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-09 Tianyi Hu , Qingxu Fu , Yanxi Chen , Zhaoyang Liu , Bolin Ding

Black-Box Optimization (BBO) methods can find optimal policies for systems that interact with complex environments with no analytical representation. As such, they are of interest in many Artificial Intelligence (AI) domains. Yet classical…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-06-17 Mor Sinay , Elad Sarafian , Yoram Louzoun , Noa Agmon , Sarit Kraus

Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithms have found limited success beyond simulated applications, and one main reason is the absence of safety guarantees during the learning process. Real world systems would realistically fail or break…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-03-22 Richard Cheng , Gabor Orosz , Richard M. Murray , Joel W. Burdick

This paper studies safe Reinforcement Learning (safe RL) with linear function approximation and under hard instantaneous constraints where unsafe actions must be avoided at each step. Existing studies have considered safe RL with hard…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-12-25 Honghao Wei , Xin Liu , Lei Ying

Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning (HRL) approaches have shown successful results in solving a large variety of complex, structured, long-horizon problems. Nevertheless, a full theoretical understanding of this empirical evidence is…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-05 Gianluca Drappo , Alberto Maria Metelli , Marcello Restelli

Reinforcement Learning (RL) can directly enhance the reasoning capabilities of large language models without extensive reliance on Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT). In this work, we revisit the traditional Policy Gradient (PG) mechanism and…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-04 Xiangxiang Chu , Hailang Huang , Xiao Zhang , Fei Wei , Yong Wang

Safe Reinforcement Learning (Safe RL) aims to train an RL agent to maximize its performance in real-world environments while adhering to safety constraints, as exceeding safety violation limits can result in severe consequences. In this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-04-07 Hanping Zhang , Yuhong Guo

Safe reinforcement learning (RL) is a popular and versatile paradigm to learn reward-maximizing policies with safety guarantees. Previous works tend to express the safety constraints in an expectation form due to the ease of implementation,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-18 Chenglin Li , Guangchun Ruan , Hua Geng

Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO), recently introduced by DeepSeek, is a critic-free reinforcement learning algorithm for fine-tuning large language models. GRPO replaces the value function in Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) with…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-24 Lei Pang , Jun Luo , Ruinan Jin

One of the key challenges to deep reinforcement learning (deep RL) is to ensure safety at both training and testing phases. In this work, we propose a novel technique of unsupervised action planning to improve the safety of on-policy…

Robotics · Computer Science 2021-09-30 Hao-Lun Hsu , Qiuhua Huang , Sehoon Ha