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Subword tokenization is an essential part of modern large language models (LLMs), yet its specific contributions to training efficiency and model performance remain poorly understood. In this work, we decouple the effects of subword…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-15 Théo Gigant , Bowen Peng , Jeffrey Quesnelle

When used with deep learning, the symbolic music modality is often coupled with language model architectures. To do so, the music needs to be tokenized, i.e. converted into a sequence of discrete tokens. This can be achieved by different…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-11-14 Nathan Fradet , Nicolas Gutowski , Fabien Chhel , Jean-Pierre Briot

Token free approaches have been successfully applied to a series of word and span level tasks. In this work, we compare a byte-level (ByT5) and a wordpiece based (mT5) sequence to sequence model on the 51 languages of the MASSIVE…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-12-15 Massimo Nicosia , Francesco Piccinno

Static subword tokenization algorithms have been an essential component of recent works on language modeling. However, their static nature results in important flaws that degrade the models' downstream performance and robustness. In this…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-12-15 Nathan Godey , Roman Castagné , Éric de la Clergerie , Benoît Sagot

In this paper, we introduce DOCmT5, a multilingual sequence-to-sequence language model pretrained with large scale parallel documents. While previous approaches have focused on leveraging sentence-level parallel data, we try to build a…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-05-06 Chia-Hsuan Lee , Aditya Siddhant , Viresh Ratnakar , Melvin Johnson

State-of-the-art poetry generation systems are often complex. They either consist of task-specific model pipelines, incorporate prior knowledge in the form of manually created constraints, or both. In contrast, end-to-end models would not…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-03-05 Jonas Belouadi , Steffen Eger

Recent advances in generative AI have been largely driven by large language models (LLMs), deep neural networks that operate over discrete units called tokens. To represent text, the vast majority of LLMs use words or word fragments as the…

Modern language models are internally -- and mathematically -- distributions over $\it{token}$ strings rather than $\it{character}$ strings, posing numerous challenges for programmers building user applications on top of them. For example,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-11 Tim Vieira , Ben LeBrun , Mario Giulianelli , Juan Luis Gastaldi , Brian DuSell , John Terilla , Timothy J. O'Donnell , Ryan Cotterell

Multilingual sequence-to-sequence models perform poorly with increased language coverage and fail to consistently generate text in the correct target language in few-shot settings. To address these challenges, we propose mmT5, a modular…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-05-24 Jonas Pfeiffer , Francesco Piccinno , Massimo Nicosia , Xinyi Wang , Machel Reid , Sebastian Ruder

Transformer-based encoder-decoder models have demonstrated impressive results in chemical reaction prediction tasks. However, these models typically rely on pretraining using tens of millions of unlabelled molecules, which can be…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-20 Jiayun Pang , Ivan Vulić

Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer (T5) has recently been considered for the Grapheme-to-Phoneme (G2P) transduction. As a follow-up, a tokenizer-free byte-level model based on T5 referred to as ByT5, recently gave promising results on…

Most existing machine translation systems operate at the level of words, relying on explicit segmentation to extract tokens. We introduce a neural machine translation (NMT) model that maps a source character sequence to a target character…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2017-06-14 Jason Lee , Kyunghyun Cho , Thomas Hofmann

Modern language models still rely on fixed, pre-defined subword tokenizations. Once a tokenizer is trained, the LM can only operate at this fixed level of granularity, which often leads to brittle and counterintuitive behaviors even in…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-05 Chunyuan Deng , Sanket Lokegaonkar , Colin Lockard , Besnik Fetahu , Nasser Zalmout , Xian Li

Most of previous work on learning diacritization of the Arabic language relied on training models from scratch. In this paper, we investigate how to leverage pre-trained language models to learn diacritization. We finetune token-free…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2023-03-28 Bashar Al-Rfooh , Gheith Abandah , Rami Al-Rfou

Existing pre-trained language models (PLMs) are often computationally expensive in inference, making them impractical in various resource-limited real-world applications. To address this issue, we propose a dynamic token reduction approach…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-05-26 Deming Ye , Yankai Lin , Yufei Huang , Maosong Sun

Large Language Models have proven highly successful at modelling a variety of tasks. However, this comes at a steep computational cost that hinders wider industrial uptake. In this paper, we present MWT: a Multi-Word Tokenizer that goes…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-08 Leonidas Gee , Leonardo Rigutini , Marco Ernandes , Andrea Zugarini

By processing electronic health records (EHRs) as natural language sequences, large language models (LLMs) have shown potential in clinical prediction tasks such as mortality prediction and phenotyping. However, longitudinal or highly…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-13 Mingcheng Zhu , Zhiyao Luo , Yu Liu , Tingting Zhu

Neural Machine Translation (NMT) models generally perform translation using a fixed-size lexical vocabulary, which is an important bottleneck on their generalization capability and overall translation quality. The standard approach to…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2019-10-22 Duygu Ataman , Orhan Firat , Mattia A. Di Gangi , Marcello Federico , Alexandra Birch

Standard Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE) tokenization compresses text by pairing a learned token vocabulary with a detailed merge list. Recent work has shown that this merge list exposes a potential attack surface for extracting information about…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-12 Tomohiro Sawada , Kartik Goyal

Modern language models have historically relied on two dominant design choices: subword tokenization and autoregressive (AR) ordering. These design decisions bake in priors that dictate a model's learning. Recently, two alternative…