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As artificial intelligence surpasses human capabilities in text generation, the necessity to authenticate the origins of AI-generated content has become paramount. Unbiased watermarks offer a powerful solution by embedding statistical…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-08-07 Ruibo Chen , Yihan Wu , Junfeng Guo , Heng Huang

The proliferation of open-source code and large language models (LLMs) for code generation has amplified the risks of unauthorized reuse and intellectual property infringement. Source code watermarking offers a potential solution, yet…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-21 Rui Xu , Jiawei Chen , Weizhi Liu , Zhaoxia Yin , Cong Kong , Xinpeng Zhang

As large language models (LLMs) continue to advance rapidly, reliable governance tools have become critical. Publicly verifiable watermarking is particularly essential for fostering a trustworthy AI ecosystem. A central challenge persists:…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-20 Shinwoo Park , Hyejin Park , Hyeseon An , Yo-Sub Han

Large Language Models (LLMs) perform impressively well in various applications. However, the potential for misuse of these models in activities such as plagiarism, generating fake news, and spamming has raised concern about their…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-01-20 Vinu Sankar Sadasivan , Aounon Kumar , Sriram Balasubramanian , Wenxiao Wang , Soheil Feizi

Diffusion large language models (dLLMs) offer faster generation than autoregressive models while maintaining comparable quality, but existing watermarking methods fail on them due to their non-sequential decoding. Unlike autoregressive…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-06 Linyu Wu , Linhao Zhong , Wenjie Qu , Yuexin Li , Yue Liu , Shengfang Zhai , Chunhua Shen , Jiaheng Zhang

The growing deployment of Large Language Models (LLMs) has raised concerns about their misuse in generating harmful or deceptive content. To address this issue, watermarking methods have been proposed to embed identifiable multi-bit…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-12 Jiahao Xu , Rui Hu , Olivera Kotevska , Zikai Zhang

The rapid growth of Large Language Models (LLMs) has highlighted the pressing need for reliable mechanisms to verify content ownership and ensure traceability. Watermarking offers a promising path forward, but it remains limited by privacy…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Thomas Fargues , Ye Dong , Tianwei Zhang , Jin-Song Dong

With the development of large models, watermarks are increasingly employed to assert copyright, verify authenticity, or monitor content distribution. As applications become more multimodal, the utility of watermarking techniques becomes…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-06-07 Jielin Qiu , William Han , Xuandong Zhao , Shangbang Long , Christos Faloutsos , Lei Li

With the rapid advancement and extensive application of artificial intelligence technology, large language models (LLMs) are extensively used to enhance production, creativity, learning, and work efficiency across various domains. However,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-09-04 Yuqing Liang , Jiancheng Xiao , Wensheng Gan , Philip S. Yu

AI developers are releasing large language models (LLMs) under a variety of different licenses. Many of these licenses restrict the ways in which the models or their outputs may be used. This raises the question how license violations may…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-05-20 Yun-Yun Tsai , Chuan Guo , Junfeng Yang , Laurens van der Maaten

Watermarking algorithms for large language models (LLMs) have attained high accuracy in detecting LLM-generated text. However, existing methods primarily focus on distinguishing fully watermarked text from non-watermarked text, overlooking…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-25 Leyi Pan , Aiwei Liu , Yijian Lu , Zitian Gao , Yichen Di , Shiyu Huang , Lijie Wen , Irwin King , Philip S. Yu

Various watermarking methods (``watermarkers'') have been proposed to identify LLM-generated texts; yet, due to the lack of unified evaluation platforms, many critical questions remain under-explored: i) What are the strengths/limitations…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-10-01 Jiacheng Liang , Zian Wang , Lauren Hong , Shouling Ji , Ting Wang

Large language model (LLM) watermarks enable authentication of text provenance, curb misuse of machine-generated text, and promote trust in AI systems. Current watermarks operate by changing the next-token predictions output by an LLM. The…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-03 Dor Tsur , Carol Xuan Long , Claudio Mayrink Verdun , Hsiang Hsu , Chen-Fu Chen , Haim Permuter , Sajani Vithana , Flavio P. Calmon

Text watermarking has emerged as a pivotal technique for identifying machine-generated text. However, existing methods often rely on arbitrary vocabulary partitioning during decoding to embed watermarks, which compromises the availability…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-07 Liang Chen , Yatao Bian , Yang Deng , Deng Cai , Shuaiyi Li , Peilin Zhao , Kam-fai Wong

This paper introduces a novel problem, distributional information embedding, motivated by the practical demands of multi-bit watermarking for large language models (LLMs). Unlike traditional information embedding, which embeds information…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-03 Haiyun He , Yepeng Liu , Ziqiao Wang , Yongyi Mao , Yuheng Bu

Existing watermarking algorithms are vulnerable to paraphrase attacks because of their token-level design. To address this issue, we propose SemStamp, a robust sentence-level semantic watermarking algorithm based on locality-sensitive…

Statistical watermarking techniques are well-established for sequentially decoded language models (LMs). However, these techniques cannot be directly applied to order-agnostic LMs, as the tokens in order-agnostic LMs are not generated…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-18 Ruibo Chen , Yihan Wu , Yanshuo Chen , Chenxi Liu , Junfeng Guo , Heng Huang

With the rise of large language models (LLMs) and concerns about potential misuse, watermarks for generative LLMs have recently attracted much attention. An important aspect of such watermarks is the trade-off between their identifiability…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-01-01 Bram Wouters

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable progress in code generation. It now becomes crucial to identify whether the code is AI-generated and to determine the specific model used, particularly for purposes such as protecting…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-12-31 Batu Guan , Yao Wan , Zhangqian Bi , Zheng Wang , Hongyu Zhang , Pan Zhou , Lichao Sun

Large Language Model (LLM) watermarking is crucial for establishing the provenance of machine-generated text, but most existing methods rely on a centralized trust model. This model forces users to reveal potentially sensitive text to a…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-01 Xiaokun Luan , Yihao Zhang , Pengcheng Su , Feiran Lei , Meng Sun