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Emergent Large Language Models (LLMs) use their extraordinary performance and powerful deduction capacity to discern from traditional language models. However, the expenses of computational resources and storage for these LLMs are stunning,…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-25 Yifei Gao , Jie Ou , Lei Wang , Yuting Xiao , Zhiyuan Xiang , Ruiting Dai , Jun Cheng

Despite recent advancements of large language models (LLMs), optimally predicting the model size for LLM pretraining or allocating optimal resources still remains a challenge. Several efforts have addressed the challenge by proposing…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-11 Md Arafat Hossain , Xingfu Wu , Valerie Taylor , Ali Jannesari

Data in biology is redundant, noisy, and sparse. How does the type and scale of available data impact model performance? In this work, we specifically investigate how protein language models (pLMs) scale with increasing pretraining data. We…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2025-07-31 Aviv Spinner , Erika DeBenedictis , Corey M. Hudson

Large language models (LLMs) have wide applications in the field of natural language processing(NLP), such as GPT-4 and Llama. However, with the exponential growth of model parameter sizes, LLMs bring significant resource overheads. Low-bit…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-27 Liangdong Liu , Zhitong Zheng , Cong Wang , Tianhuang Su , Zhenyu Yang

Large Language Models (LLMs) excel in diverse tasks but often underperform in specialized fields due to limited domain-specific or proprietary corpus. Continual pre-training (CPT) enhances LLM capabilities by imbuing new domain-specific or…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-10-08 Jiawei Gu , Zacc Yang , Chuanghao Ding , Rui Zhao , Fei Tan

Code Large Language Models (LLMs) are revolutionizing software engineering. However, scaling laws that guide the efficient training are predominantly analyzed on Natural Language (NL). Given the fundamental differences like strict syntax…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-19 Xianzhen Luo , Wenzhen Zheng , Qingfu Zhu , Rongyi Zhang , Houyi Li , Siming Huang , YuanTao Fan , Wanxiang Che

Scaling laws for large language models (LLMs) predict model performance based on parameters like size and training data. However, differences in training configurations and data processing across model families lead to significant…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-03 Felipe Maia Polo , Seamus Somerstep , Leshem Choshen , Yuekai Sun , Mikhail Yurochkin

Large language models (LLMs) have been widely employed across various application domains, yet their black-box nature poses significant challenges to understanding how these models process input data internally to make predictions. In this…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-03 Hangfeng He , Weijie J. Su

Normalization layers in modern large language models (LLMs) consist of a deterministic normalization operation and a learnable scale vector. While the normalization operation has been extensively studied, the scale vector remains poorly…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-27 Mingze Wang , Shuchen Zhu , Yuxin Fang , Binghui Li , Kai Shen , Shu Zhong

Scaling laws describe how language models improve with additional data, parameters, and compute. While widely used, they are typically measured on aggregate test sets. Aggregate evaluations yield clean trends but average over heterogeneous…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-01-16 William Held , David Hall , Percy Liang , Diyi Yang

The scaling law is becoming a fundamental law in many machine learning areas. That is, test error falls off with the power law when increasing training data, model size, and computing resource. However, whether this law is suitable for the…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2024-02-21 Jiayi Lin , Hande Dong , Yutao Xie , Lei Zhang

The prevailing paradigm in large language model (LLM) development is to pretrain a base model, then perform further training to improve performance and model behavior. However, hyperparameter optimization and scaling laws have been studied…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-12 Tessa Han , Sebastian Bordt , Hanlin Zhang , Sham Kakade

The increasing size and complexity of pre-trained language models have demonstrated superior performance in many applications, but they usually require large training datasets to be adequately trained. Insufficient training sets could…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-03 Yaping Chai , Haoran Xie , Joe S. Qin

Large language models (LLMs) bear promise as a fast and accurate material modeling paradigm for evaluation, analysis, and design. Their vast number of trainable parameters necessitates a wealth of data to achieve accuracy and mitigate…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-07-04 Ning Liu , Siavash Jafarzadeh , Brian Y. Lattimer , Shuna Ni , Jim Lua , Yue Yu

Precise estimation of downstream performance in large language models (LLMs) prior to training is essential for guiding their development process. Scaling laws analysis utilizes the statistics of a series of significantly smaller sampling…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-09 Yangyi Chen , Binxuan Huang , Yifan Gao , Zhengyang Wang , Jingfeng Yang , Heng Ji

We assess how the code reasoning abilities of large language models (LLMs) generalize to different kinds of programs. We present techniques for obtaining in- and out-of-distribution programs with different characteristics: code sampled from…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-04-09 Rem Yang , Julian Dai , Nikos Vasilakis , Martin Rinard

Despite the increasing prevalence of large language models (LLMs), we still have a limited understanding of how their representational spaces are structured. This limits our ability to interpret how and what they learn or relate them to…

Large Transformer-based language models are pre-trained on corpora of varying sizes, for a different number of steps and with different batch sizes. At the same time, more fundamental components, such as the pre-training objective or…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2021-05-12 M. Aßenmacher , P. Schulze , C. Heumann

The growing computational demands of training large language models (LLMs) necessitate more efficient methods. Quantized training presents a promising solution by enabling low-bit arithmetic operations to reduce these costs. While FP8…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-18 Ruizhe Wang , Yeyun Gong , Xiao Liu , Guoshuai Zhao , Ziyue Yang , Baining Guo , Zhengjun Zha , Peng Cheng

Recent advances in diffusion large language models (dLLMs) have introduced a promising alternative to autoregressive (AR) LLMs for natural language generation tasks, leveraging full attention and denoising-based decoding strategies.…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-03-17 Haokun Lin , Haobo Xu , Yichen Wu , Ziyu Guo , Renrui Zhang , Zhichao Lu , Ying Wei , Qingfu Zhang , Zhenan Sun