Related papers: Additive word complexity and Walnut
As is the case of many signals produced by complex systems, language presents a statistical structure that is balanced between order and disorder. Here we review and extend recent results from quantitative characterisations of the degree of…
The question about maximal size of independent system of word equations is one of the most striking problems in combinatorics on words. Recently, Aleksi Saarela has introduced a new approach to the problem that is based on linear-algebraic…
We relate two measures of complexity of regular languages. The first is syntactic complexity, that is, the cardinality of the syntactic semigroup of the language. That semigroup is isomorphic to the semigroup of transformations of states…
In this paper we introduce and study a new complexity measure for finite words. For positive integer $d$ special scattered subwords, called super-$d$-subwords, in which the gaps are of length at least $(d-1)$, are defined. We give methods…
We provide a complete characterisation of the appearance function for paper-folding sequences for factors of any length. We make use of the software package {\tt Walnut} to establish these results.
A word is called closed if it has a prefix which is also its suffix and there is no internal occurrences of this prefix in the word. In this paper we study words that are rich in closed factors, i.e., which contain the maximal possible…
We study formal languages which are capable of fully expressing quantitative probabilistic reasoning and do-calculus reasoning for causal effects, from a computational complexity perspective. We focus on satisfiability problems whose…
A challenging task for word embeddings is to capture the emergent meaning or polarity of a combination of individual words. For example, existing approaches in word embeddings will assign high probabilities to the words "Penguin" and "Fly"…
We prove that a sequence satisfying a certain symmetry property is $2$-regular in the sense of Allouche and Shallit, i.e., the $\mathbb{Z}$-module generated by its $2$-kernel is finitely generated. We apply this theorem to develop a general…
The past research on the state complexity of operations on regular languages is examined, and a new approach based on an old method (derivatives of regular expressions) is presented. Since state complexity is a property of a language, it is…
Surprisal theory posits that the cognitive effort required to comprehend a word is determined by its contextual predictability, quantified as surprisal. Traditionally, surprisal theory treats words as distinct entities, overlooking any…
Polynomial factorization is a fundamental problem in computational algebra. Over the past half century, a variety of algorithmic techniques have been developed to tackle different variants of this problem. In parallel, algebraic complexity…
An abelian anti-power of order $k$ (or simply an abelian $k$-anti-power) is a concatenation of $k$ consecutive words of the same length having pairwise distinct Parikh vectors. This definition generalizes to the abelian setting the notion…
By fundamental results of Sch\"utzenberger, McNaughton and Papert from the 1970s, the classes of first-order definable and aperiodic languages coincide. Here, we extend this equivalence to a quantitative setting. For this, weighted automata…
Under categorial grammars that have powerful rules like composition, a simple n-word sentence can have exponentially many parses. Generating all parses is inefficient and obscures whatever true semantic ambiguities are in the input. This…
Frequent pattern mining is widely used to find ``important'' or ``interesting'' patterns in data. While it is not easy to mathematically define such patterns, maximal frequent patterns are promising candidates, as frequency is a natural…
Two finite words $u$ and $v$ are $k$-binomially equivalent if, for each word $x$ of length at most $k$, $x$ appears the same number of times as a subsequence (i.e., as a scattered subword) of both $u$ and $v$. This notion generalizes…
A set X of partial words over a finite alphabet A is called unavoidable if every two-sided infinite word over A has a factor compatible with an element of X. Unlike the case of a set of words without holes, the problem of deciding whether…
According to the distributional inclusion hypothesis, entailment between words can be measured via the feature inclusions of their distributional vectors. In recent work, we showed how this hypothesis can be extended from words to phrases…
Several popular language models represent local contexts in an input text $x$ as bags of words. Such representations are naturally encoded by a sequence graph whose vertices are the distinct words occurring in $x$, with edges representing…