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Saliency methods have been widely used to highlight important input features in model predictions. Most existing methods use backpropagation on a modified gradient function to generate saliency maps. Thus, noisy gradients can result in…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2021-11-30 Aya Abdelsalam Ismail , Héctor Corrada Bravo , Soheil Feizi

The Forward-Forward algorithm has evolved in machine learning research, tackling more complex tasks that mimic real-life applications. In the last years, it has been improved by several techniques to perform better than its original…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-26 Mauricio Ortiz Torres , Markus Lange , Arne P. Raulf

The application of deep learning to the area of communications systems has been a growing field of interest in recent years. Forward-forward (FF) learning is an efficient alternative to the backpropagation (BP) algorithm, which is the…

Information Theory · Computer Science 2026-02-17 Daniel Seifert , Onur Günlü , Rafael F. Schaefer

Backpropagation is the pivotal algorithm underpinning the success of artificial neural networks, yet it has critical limitations such as biologically implausible backward locking and global error propagation. To circumvent these…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-09-11 James Gong , Raymond Luo , Emma Wang , Leon Ge , Bruce Li , Felix Marattukalam , Waleed Abdulla

We present the Graph Forward-Forward (GFF) algorithm, an extension of the Forward-Forward procedure to graphs, able to handle features distributed over a graph's nodes. This allows training graph neural networks with forward passes only,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-13 Daniele Paliotta , Mathieu Alain , Bálint Máté , François Fleuret

Recent deep learning models such as ChatGPT utilizing the back-propagation algorithm have exhibited remarkable performance. However, the disparity between the biological brain processes and the back-propagation algorithm has been noted. The…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-24 Taewook Hwang , Hyein Seo , Sangkeun Jung

Recent successes in image analysis with deep neural networks are achieved almost exclusively with Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), typically trained using the backpropagation (BP) algorithm. In a 2022 preprint, Geoffrey Hinton proposed…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-11-05 Riccardo Scodellaro , Ajinkya Kulkarni , Frauke Alves , Matthias Schröter

The Forward-Forward (FF) algorithm presents a compelling, bio-inspired alternative to backpropagation. However, while efficient in training, it has a computationally prohibitive inference process that requires a separate forward pass for…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-04 Shalini Sarode , Brian Moser , Joachim Folz , Federico Raue , Tobias Nauen , Stanislav Frolov , Andreas Dengel

The de facto algorithm for training the back pass of a feedforward neural network is backpropagation (BP). The use of almost-everywhere differentiable activation functions made it efficient and effective to propagate the gradient backwards…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2022-06-14 John Waldo

The Forward-Forward algorithm eliminates backpropagation's memory constraints and biological implausibility through dual forward passes with positive and negative data. However, conventional implementations suffer from critical inter-layer…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-12-23 Salar Beigzad

This paper introduces a new architectural framework, known as input fast-forwarding, that can enhance the performance of deep networks. The main idea is to incorporate a parallel path that sends representations of input values forward to…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2017-05-25 Ahmed Ibrahim , A. Lynn Abbott , Mohamed E. Hussein

We present a general framework for training deep neural networks without backpropagation. This substantially decreases training time and also allows for construction of deep networks with many sorts of learners, including networks whose…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2017-06-09 Chris Hettinger , Tanner Christensen , Ben Ehlert , Jeffrey Humpherys , Tyler Jarvis , Sean Wade

Function regression/approximation is a fundamental application of machine learning. Neural networks (NNs) can be easily trained for function regression using a sufficient number of neurons and epochs. The forward-forward learning algorithm…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-16 Shivam Padmani , Akshay Joshi

A fundamental bottleneck in utilising complex machine learning systems for critical applications has been not knowing why they do and what they do, thus preventing the development of any crucial safety protocols. To date, no method exist…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-01-18 Jan Rosenzweig , Zoran Cvetkovic , Ivana Rosenzweig

Large language models (LLMs) have made fundamental contributions over the last a few years. To train an LLM, one needs to alternatingly run `forward' computations and `backward' computations. The forward computation can be viewed as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-02-08 Josh Alman , Zhao Song

Agents that operate autonomously benefit from lifelong learning capabilities. However, compatible training algorithms must comply with the decentralized nature of these systems, which imposes constraints on both the parameter counts and the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-03-28 Xing Chen , Dongshu Liu , Jeremie Laydevant , Julie Grollier

Gradient-based neural network training traditionally enforces symmetry between forward and backward propagation, requiring activation functions to be differentiable (or sub-differentiable) and strictly monotonic in certain regions to…

Neural and Evolutionary Computing · Computer Science 2025-09-10 Luigi Troiano , Francesco Gissi , Vincenzo Benedetto , Genny Tortora

The Forward-Forward Learning (FFL) algorithm is a recently proposed solution for training neural networks without needing memory-intensive backpropagation. During training, labels accompany input data, classifying them as positive or…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-05-22 Ali Karkehabadi , Houman Homayoun , Avesta Sasan

Visual attention is one of the most significant characteristics for selecting and understanding the outside redundancy world. The human vision system cannot process all information simultaneously due to the visual information bottleneck. In…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-11-05 Qiang Li

Feature maps in deep neural network generally contain different semantics. Existing methods often omit their characteristics that may lead to sub-optimal results. In this paper, we propose a novel end-to-end deep saliency network which…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2018-08-07 Fengdong Sun , Wenhui Li , Yuanyuan Guan