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Generation-time text watermarking embeds statistical signals into text for traceability of AI-generated content. We explore *post-hoc watermarking* where an LLM rewrites existing text while applying generation-time watermarking, to protect…

Efficient knowledge injection methods for Large Language Models (LLMs), such as In-Context Learning, knowledge editing, and efficient parameter fine-tuning, significantly enhance model utility on downstream tasks. However, they also pose…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-01-23 Ziwei Zhang , Juan Wen , Wanli Peng , Zhengxian Wu , Yinghan Zhou , Yiming Xue

Despite progress in watermarking algorithms for large language models (LLMs), real-world deployment remains limited. We argue that this gap stems from misaligned incentives among LLM providers, platforms, and end users, which manifest as…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-22 Yepeng Liu , Xuandong Zhao , Dawn Song , Gregory W. Wornell , Yuheng Bu

Code datasets are of immense value for training neural-network-based code completion models, where companies or organizations have made substantial investments to establish and process these datasets. Unluckily, these datasets, either built…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2023-08-29 Zhensu Sun , Xiaoning Du , Fu Song , Li Li

Detecting machine-generated text is essential for transparency and accountability when deploying large language models (LLMs). Among detection approaches, watermarking is a statistically reliable method by design -- it embeds detectable…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-05-05 Koshiro Saito , Ryuto Koike , Masahiro Kaneko , Naoaki Okazaki

As large language models (LLMs) reach human-like fluency, reliably distinguishing AI-generated text from human authorship becomes increasingly difficult. While watermarks already exist for LLMs, they often lack flexibility and struggle with…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-18 Georg Niess , Roman Kern

Text watermarking has emerged as a pivotal technique for identifying machine-generated text. However, existing methods often rely on arbitrary vocabulary partitioning during decoding to embed watermarks, which compromises the availability…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-07 Liang Chen , Yatao Bian , Yang Deng , Deng Cai , Shuaiyi Li , Peilin Zhao , Kam-fai Wong

Watermarking embeds information into digital content like images, audio, or text, imperceptible to humans but robustly detectable by specific algorithms. This technology has important applications in many challenges of the industry such as…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Pierre Fernandez

The increasing use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, such as Large Language Models (LLMs) has led to nontrivial improvements in various tasks, including accurate authorship identification of documents. However, while LLMs…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-03-26 Kenneth Alperin , Rohan Leekha , Adaku Uchendu , Trang Nguyen , Srilakshmi Medarametla , Carlos Levya Capote , Seth Aycock , Charlie Dagli

Reasoning Large Language Models (RLLMs) excelling in complex tasks present unique challenges for digital watermarking, as existing methods often disrupt logical coherence or incur high computational costs. Token-based watermarking…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-04-02 Shuliang Liu , Xingyu Li , Hongyi Liu , Dong Fang , Yibo Yan , Bingchen Duan , Qi Zheng , Lingfeng Su , Xuming Hu

Watermarking technology has gained significant attention due to the increasing importance of intellectual property (IP) rights, particularly with the growing deployment of large language models (LLMs) on billions resource-constrained edge…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-07-14 Qingxiao Guo , Xinjie Zhu , Yilong Ma , Hui Jin , Yunhao Wang , Weifeng Zhang , Xiaobing Guo

To mitigate the potential misuse of large language models (LLMs), recent research has developed watermarking algorithms, which restrict the generation process to leave an invisible trace for watermark detection. Due to the two-stage nature…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-07-02 Shangqing Tu , Yuliang Sun , Yushi Bai , Jifan Yu , Lei Hou , Juanzi Li

As large language models (LLMs) become integral to applications such as question answering and content creation, reliable content attribution has become increasingly important. Watermarking is a promising approach, but most existing methods…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-11 Ya Jiang , Massieh Kordi Boroujeny , Surender Suresh Kumar , Kai Zeng

Proprietary large language models (LLMs) face risks of intellectual property (IP) violation, as adversaries can replicate an LLM by collecting input-output pairs to train a surrogate model, causing financial setbacks. Watermarks offer a…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-25 Kieu Dang , Phung Lai , NhatHai Phan , Yelong Shen , Ruoming Jin

Given how large parts of publicly available text are crawled to pretrain large language models (LLMs), data creators increasingly worry about the inclusion of their proprietary data for model training without attribution or licensing. Their…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-06-10 Saksham Rastogi , Pratyush Maini , Danish Pruthi

We consider the emerging problem of identifying the presence and use of watermarking schemes in widely used, publicly hosted, closed source large language models (LLMs). We introduce a suite of baseline algorithms for identifying watermarks…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-05-31 Leonard Tang , Gavin Uberti , Tom Shlomi

With the proliferation of AI agents in various domains, protecting the ownership of AI models has become crucial due to the significant investment in their development. Unauthorized use and illegal distribution of these models pose serious…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-01-14 Erjin Bao , Ching-Chun Chang , Hanrui Wang , Isao Echizen

Image generation algorithms are increasingly integral to diverse aspects of human society, driven by their practical applications. However, insufficient oversight in artificial Intelligence generated content (AIGC) can facilitate the spread…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-04-01 Wenhao Luo , Zhangyi Shen , Ye Yao , Feng Ding , Guopu Zhu , Weizhi Meng

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated exceptional capabilities in text understanding and generation, and they are increasingly being utilized across various domains to enhance productivity. However, due to the high costs of…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-11-05 Yu Mao , Xueping Liao , Wei Liu , Anjia Yang

Large language models (LLMs) have advanced conversational AI assistants. However, systematically evaluating how well these assistants apply personalization--adapting to individual user preferences while completing tasks--remains…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-06-12 Zheng Zhao , Clara Vania , Subhradeep Kayal , Naila Khan , Shay B. Cohen , Emine Yilmaz