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Watermarking is an important tool for promoting the responsible use of large language models (LLMs). Existing watermarks insert a signal into generated tokens that either flags LLM-generated text (zero-bit watermarking) or encodes more…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-05-25 Atefeh Gilani , Sajani Vithana , Carol Xuan Long , Oliver Kosut , Lalitha Sankar , Flavio P. Calmon

Watermarking has emerged as a crucial technique for detecting and attributing content generated by large language models. While recent advancements have utilized watermark ensembles to enhance robustness, prevailing methods typically…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-13 Ruibo Chen , Yihan Wu , Xuehao Cui , Jingqi Zhang , Heng Huang

Existing watermarking algorithms are vulnerable to paraphrase attacks because of their token-level design. To address this issue, we propose SemStamp, a robust sentence-level semantic watermarking algorithm based on locality-sensitive…

We propose Easymark, a family of embarrassingly simple yet effective watermarks. Text watermarking is becoming increasingly important with the advent of Large Language Models (LLM). LLMs can generate texts that cannot be distinguished from…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-10-16 Ryoma Sato , Yuki Takezawa , Han Bao , Kenta Niwa , Makoto Yamada

Watermarking has emerged as a promising technique to track AI-generated content and differentiate it from authentic human creations. While prior work extensively studies watermarking for autoregressive large language models (LLMs) and image…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-02-16 Avi Bagchi , Akhil Bhimaraju , Moulik Choraria , Daniel Alabi , Lav R. Varshney

Watermarking of large language models (LLMs) generation embeds an imperceptible statistical pattern within texts, making it algorithmically detectable. Watermarking is a promising method for addressing potential harm and biases from LLMs,…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-12-09 Lingjie Chen , Ruizhong Qiu , Siyu Yuan , Zhining Liu , Tianxin Wei , Hyunsik Yoo , Zhichen Zeng , Deqing Yang , Hanghang Tong

Large Language Models (LLMs) have transformed natural language processing, demonstrating impressive capabilities across diverse tasks. However, deploying these models introduces critical risks related to intellectual property violations and…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2025-12-24 Kieu Dang , Phung Lai , NhatHai Phan , Yelong Shen , Ruoming Jin , Abdallah Khreishah , My T. Thai

Watermarking for large language models (LLMs) is a promising approach for detecting LLM-generated text and enabling responsible deployment. However, existing watermarking methods are often vulnerable to semantic-invariant attacks, such as…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-05-26 Zhenxin Ai , Haiyun He

Since ChatGPT was introduced in November 2022, embedding (nearly) unnoticeable statistical signals into text generated by large language models (LLMs), also known as watermarking, has been used as a principled approach to provable detection…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2025-08-28 Xiang Li , Feng Ruan , Huiyuan Wang , Qi Long , Weijie J. Su

The rapid advancement of Large Language Models (LLMs) has significantly enhanced the capabilities of text generators. With the potential for misuse escalating, the importance of discerning whether texts are human-authored or generated by…

Multimedia · Computer Science 2024-03-12 Travis Munyer , Abdullah Tanvir , Arjon Das , Xin Zhong

Text watermarking plays a crucial role in ensuring the traceability and accountability of large language model (LLM) outputs and mitigating misuse. While promising, most existing methods assume perfect pseudorandomness. In practice,…

Statistics Theory · Mathematics 2026-01-21 T. Tony Cai , Xiang Li , Qi Long , Weijie J. Su , Garrett G. Wen

Watermark algorithms for large language models (LLMs) have achieved extremely high accuracy in detecting text generated by LLMs. Such algorithms typically involve adding extra watermark logits to the LLM's logits at each generation step.…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-05-21 Aiwei Liu , Leyi Pan , Xuming Hu , Shiao Meng , Lijie Wen

Watermarking provides a critical safeguard for large language model (LLM) services by facilitating the detection of LLM-generated text. Correspondingly, stealing watermark algorithms (SWAs) derive watermark information from watermarked…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2026-04-14 Shuhao Zhang , Yuli Chen , Jiale Han , Bo Cheng , Jiabao Ma

The rapid advancement of large language models (LLMs) has made it increasingly difficult to distinguish between text written by humans and machines. Addressing this, we propose a novel method for generating watermarks that strategically…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-15 Georg Niess , Roman Kern

The recent explosion of high-quality language models has necessitated new methods for identifying AI-generated text. Watermarking is a leading solution and could prove to be an essential tool in the age of generative AI. Existing approaches…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-10-25 Miranda Christ , Sam Gunn , Tal Malkin , Mariana Raykova

The proliferation of Large Language Models (LLMs) necessitates efficient mechanisms to distinguish machine-generated content from human text. While statistical watermarking has emerged as a promising solution, existing methods suffer from…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-02-20 Baihe Huang , Eric Xu , Kannan Ramchandran , Jiantao Jiao , Michael I. Jordan

Watermarking has become a key technique for proprietary language models, enabling the distinction between AI-generated and human-written text. However, in many real-world scenarios, LLM-generated content may undergo post-generation edits,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-10-03 Liyan Xie , Muhammad Siddeek , Mohamed Seif , Andrea J. Goldsmith , Mengdi Wang

Watermarking approaches are proposed to identify if text being circulated is human or large language model (LLM) generated. The state-of-the-art watermarking strategy of Kirchenbauer et al. (2023a) biases the LLM to generate specific…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-03-25 Qilong Wu , Varun Chandrasekaran

LLM watermarking, which embeds imperceptible yet algorithmically detectable signals in model outputs to identify LLM-generated text, has become crucial in mitigating the potential misuse of large language models. However, the abundance of…

Cryptography and Security · Computer Science 2024-10-29 Leyi Pan , Aiwei Liu , Zhiwei He , Zitian Gao , Xuandong Zhao , Yijian Lu , Binglin Zhou , Shuliang Liu , Xuming Hu , Lijie Wen , Irwin King , Philip S. Yu

Watermarking technology is a method used to trace the usage of content generated by large language models. Sentence-level watermarking aids in preserving the semantic integrity within individual sentences while maintaining greater…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-04-25 Junyan Zhang , Shuliang Liu , Aiwei Liu , Yubo Gao , Jungang Li , Xiaojie Gu , Xuming Hu
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