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Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection lies at the heart of robust artificial intelligence (AI), aiming to identify samples from novel distributions beyond the training set. Recent approaches have exploited feature representations as…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-08-06 Tarhib Al Azad , Faizul Rakib Sayem , Shahana Ibrahim

Supervised learning aims to train a classifier under the assumption that training and test data are from the same distribution. To ease the above assumption, researchers have studied a more realistic setting: out-of-distribution (OOD)…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-09 Zhen Fang , Yixuan Li , Feng Liu , Bo Han , Jie Lu

Machine learning methods must be trusted to make appropriate decisions in real-world environments, even when faced with out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. Many current approaches simply aim to detect OOD examples and alert the user when an…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-09-13 Randolph Linderman , Jingyang Zhang , Nathan Inkawhich , Hai Li , Yiran Chen

Deep learning models are increasingly deployed in safety-critical applications, where reliable out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is essential to ensure robustness. Existing methods predominantly rely on the penultimate-layer activations…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2026-05-13 Shreen Gul , Mohamed Elmahallawy , Ardhendu Tripathy , Sanjay Madria

Since deep learning models have been implemented in many commercial applications, it is important to detect out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs correctly to maintain the performance of the models, ensure the quality of the collected data, and…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2019-09-10 Qing Yu , Kiyoharu Aizawa

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is a crucial part of deploying machine learning models safely. It has been extensively studied with a plethora of methods developed in the literature. This problem is tackled with an OOD score…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-01-19 Jingqiu Zhou , Aojun Zhou , Hongsheng Li

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety and reliability of deep neural networks in various applications. While there has been a growing focus on OOD detection in visual data, the field of textual OOD…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-04-10 Li-Ming Zhan , Bo Liu , Xiao-Ming Wu

Improving the reliability of deployed machine learning systems often involves developing methods to detect out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs. However, existing research often narrowly focuses on samples from classes that are absent from the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-12-11 Charles Guille-Escuret , Pierre-André Noël , Ioannis Mitliagkas , David Vazquez , Joao Monteiro

During the forward pass of Deep Neural Networks (DNNs), inputs gradually transformed from low-level features to high-level conceptual labels. While features at different layers could summarize the important factors of the inputs at varying…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2022-03-02 Haoliang Wang , Chen Zhao , Xujiang Zhao , Feng Chen

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection aims to discern outliers from the intended data distribution, which is crucial to maintaining high reliability and a good user experience. Most recent studies in OOD detection utilize the information from…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2022-10-21 Hyunsoo Cho , Choonghyun Park , Jaewook Kang , Kang Min Yoo , Taeuk Kim , Sang-goo Lee

Addressing the Out-of-Distribution (OoD) segmentation task is a prerequisite for perception systems operating in an open-world environment. Large foundational models are frequently used in downstream tasks, however, their potential for OoD…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-09-11 Nazir Nayal , Youssef Shoeb , Fatma Güney

Supervised learning aims to train a classifier under the assumption that training and test data are from the same distribution. To ease the above assumption, researchers have studied a more realistic setting: out-of-distribution (OOD)…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-02-28 Zhen Fang , Yixuan Li , Jie Lu , Jiahua Dong , Bo Han , Feng Liu

Efficient and effective Out-of-Distribution (OOD) detection is essential for the safe deployment of AI systems. Existing feature space methods, while effective, often incur significant computational overhead due to their reliance on…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-06-05 Litian Liu , Yao Qin

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is an indispensable aspect of secure AI when deploying machine learning models in real-world applications. Previous paradigms either explore better scoring functions or utilize the knowledge of outliers…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-06-07 Jianing Zhu , Hengzhuang Li , Jiangchao Yao , Tongliang Liu , Jianliang Xu , Bo Han

Numerous machine learning (ML) models have been developed, including those for software engineering (SE) tasks, under the assumption that training and testing data come from the same distribution. However, training and testing distributions…

Software Engineering · Computer Science 2025-03-04 Yanfu Yan , Viet Duong , Huajie Shao , Denys Poshyvanyk

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is crucial for the reliable deployment of machine learning models in real-world scenarios, enabling the identification of unknown samples or objects. A prominent approach to enhance OOD detection…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2025-08-05 Heng Gao , Jun Li

In this paper, we address the problem of class-generalizable anomaly detection, where the objective is to develop a unified model by focusing our learning on the available normal data and a small amount of anomaly data in order to detect…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-28 Padmaksha Roy , Lamine Mili , Almuatazbellah Boker

Deep neural networks achieve superior performance in challenging tasks such as image classification. However, deep classifiers tend to incorrectly classify out-of-distribution (OOD) inputs, which are inputs that do not belong to the…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-10-24 Vahdat Abdelzad , Krzysztof Czarnecki , Rick Salay , Taylor Denounden , Sachin Vernekar , Buu Phan

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection, crucial for reliable pattern classification, discerns whether a sample originates outside the training distribution. This paper concentrates on the high-dimensional features output by the final…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Qiuyu Zhu , Yiwei He

Out-of-distribution (OOD) detection is crucial for ensuring the reliability of deep learning models in real-world applications. Existing methods typically focus on feature representations or output-space analysis, often assuming a…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-18 Mostafa ElAraby , Sabyasachi Sahoo , Yann Pequignot , Paul Novello , Liam Paull