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Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has demonstrated promise in Whole Slide Image (WSI) classification. However, a major challenge persists due to the high computational cost associated with processing these gigapixel images. Existing methods…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-12-05 Hongyi Wang , Luyang Luo , Fang Wang , Ruofeng Tong , Yen-Wei Chen , Hongjie Hu , Lanfen Lin , Hao Chen

Multiple instance learning (MIL) is the dominant framework for whole-slide image analysis in computational pathology, typically combining a frozen patch encoder, a projection layer, and a slide-level aggregator. While encoders and…

Quantitative Methods · Quantitative Biology 2026-05-19 Yucheng Xing , Pei Liu , Jingying Ma , Ruping Hong , Jiangdong Qiu , Tianyu Liu , Kai He , Ling Huang , Mengling Feng

Supervised learning tasks such as cancer survival prediction from gigapixel whole slide images (WSIs) are a critical challenge in computational pathology that requires modeling complex features of the tumor microenvironment. These learning…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2022-11-22 Iain Carmichael , Andrew H. Song , Richard J. Chen , Drew F. K. Williamson , Tiffany Y. Chen , Faisal Mahmood

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has become the leading approach for extracting discriminative features from whole slide images (WSIs) in computational pathology. Attention-based MIL methods can identify key patches but tend to overlook…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-09-30 Lubin Gan , Xiaoman Wu , Jing Zhang , Zhifeng Wang , Linhao Qu , Siying Wu , Xiaoyan Sun

Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) methods have been proposed to interpret model decisions in classification and, more recently, in semantic segmentation. However, instance-level XAI for semantic segmentation, namely explanations…

In histopathology, intelligent diagnosis of Whole Slide Images (WSIs) is essential for automating and objectifying diagnoses, reducing the workload of pathologists. However, diagnostic models often face the challenge of forgetting…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-26 Weixi Zheng , Aoling Huang , Jingping Yuan , Haoyu Zhao , Zhou Zhao , Yongchao Xu , Thierry Géraud

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) involves predicting a single label for a bag of instances, given positive or negative labels at bag-level, without accessing to label for each instance in the training phase. Since a positive bag contains…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-09-09 Beomjo Shin , Junsu Cho , Hwanjo Yu , Seungjin Choi

Multi-instance learning (MIL) is a widely-applied technique in practical applications that involve complex data structures. MIL can be broadly categorized into two types: traditional methods and those based on deep learning. These…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-04-25 Yu-Xuan Zhang , Zhengchun Zhou , Xingxing He , Avik Ranjan Adhikary , Bapi Dutta

Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) models have proven effective for cancer prognosis from Whole Slide Images. However, the original MIL formulation incorrectly assumes the patches of the same image to be independent, leading to a loss of…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-13 Thiziri Nait Saada , Valentina Di Proietto , Benoit Schmauch , Katharina Von Loga , Lucas Fidon

Whole Slide Image (WSI) analysis is a powerful method to facilitate the diagnosis of cancer in tissue samples. Automating this diagnosis poses various issues, most notably caused by the immense image resolution and limited annotations. WSIs…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2023-04-19 Ahmet Gokberk Gul , Oezdemir Cetin , Christoph Reich , Tim Prangemeier , Nadine Flinner , Heinz Koeppl

Accurate tumor detection in digital pathology whole-slide images (WSIs) is crucial for cancer diagnosis and treatment planning. Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) has emerged as a widely used approach for weakly-supervised tumor detection…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-03-03 Marina D'Amato , Jeroen van der Laak , Francesco Ciompi

Multiple instance learning (MIL) problem is currently solved from either bag-classification or instance-classification perspective, both of which ignore important information contained in some instances and result in limited performance.…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-08-12 Yingfan Ma , Xiaoyuan Luo , Mingzhi Yuan , Xinrong Chen , Manning Wang

Multiple instance learning exhibits a powerful approach for whole slide image-based diagnosis in the absence of pixel- or patch-level annotations. In spite of the huge size of hole slide images, the number of individual slides is often…

Multiple instance learning (MIL) was a weakly supervised learning approach that sought to assign binary class labels to collections of instances known as bags. However, due to their weak supervision nature, the MIL methods were susceptible…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-05-27 Wenhui Zhu , Peijie Qiu , Xiwen Chen , Oana M. Dumitrascu , Yalin Wang

Breast cancer prediction models for mammography assume that annotations are available for individual images or regions of interest (ROIs), and that there is a fixed number of images per patient. These assumptions do not hold in real…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-10-22 Shreyasi Pathak , Jörg Schlötterer , Jeroen Geerdink , Jeroen Veltman , Maurice van Keulen , Nicola Strisciuglio , Christin Seifert

Multiple instance learning (MIL) has emerged as a popular method for classifying histopathology whole slide images (WSIs). Existing approaches typically rely on frozen pre-trained models to extract instance features, neglecting the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-03-20 Yi Lin , Zhengjie Zhu , Kwang-Ting Cheng , Hao Chen

\textit{Multiple Instance Learning} (MIL) is concerned with learning from bags of instances, where only bag labels are given and instance labels are unknown. Existent approaches in this field were mainly designed for the bag-level label…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2019-05-30 Minlong Peng , Qi Zhang

In computational pathology, weak supervision has become the standard for deep learning due to the gigapixel scale of WSIs and the scarcity of pixel-level annotations, with Multiple Instance Learning (MIL) established as the principal…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-12-17 Andreas Lolos , Theofilos Christodoulou , Aris L. Moustakas , Stergios Christodoulidis , Maria Vakalopoulou

In the field of computational histopathology, both whole slide images (WSIs) and diagnostic captions provide valuable insights for making diagnostic decisions. However, aligning WSIs with diagnostic captions presents a significant…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2025-03-18 Qifeng Zhou , Wenliang Zhong , Yuzhi Guo , Michael Xiao , Hehuan Ma , Junzhou Huang

Whole Slide Imaging (WSI), which involves high-resolution digital scans of pathology slides, has become the gold standard for cancer diagnosis, but its gigapixel resolution and the scarcity of annotated datasets present challenges for deep…

Image and Video Processing · Electrical Eng. & Systems 2025-02-03 Rita Pereira , M. Rita Verdelho , Catarina Barata , Carlos Santiago