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We present a new method for counterfactual explanations (CFEs) based on Bayesian optimisation that applies to both classification and regression models. Our method is a globally convergent search algorithm with support for arbitrary…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-06-30 Thomas Spooner , Danial Dervovic , Jason Long , Jon Shepard , Jiahao Chen , Daniele Magazzeni

There has been considerable recent interest in explainability in AI, especially with black-box machine learning models. As correctly observed by the planning community, when the application at hand is not a single-shot decision or…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-02-14 Vaishak Belle

Visual counterfactual explainers (VCEs) are a straightforward and promising approach to enhancing the transparency of image classifiers. VCEs complement other types of explanations, such as feature attribution, by revealing the specific…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-01-13 Sidney Bender , Jan Herrmann , Klaus-Robert Müller , Grégoire Montavon

Counterfactual explanations emerge as a powerful approach in explainable AI, providing what-if scenarios that reveal how minimal changes to an input time series can alter the model's prediction. This work presents a survey of recent…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2026-03-31 Udo Schlegel , Thomas Seidl

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) are a popular approach in explainable artificial intelligence (xAI), highlighting changes to input data necessary for altering a model's output. A CFE can either describe a scenario that is better than the…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2023-10-26 Ulrike Kuhl , André Artelt , Barbara Hammer

Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) has become increasingly important in decision-critical domains such as healthcare, finance, and law. Counterfactual (CF) explanations, a key approach in XAI, provide users with actionable insights…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2025-07-22 Volkan Bakir , Polat Goktas , Sureyya Akyuz

Counterfactual explanations (CEs) based on concepts are explanations that consider alternative scenarios to understand which high-level semantic features contributed to particular model predictions. In this work, we propose CEs based on the…

Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · Computer Science 2024-07-23 Angeliki Dimitriou , Maria Lymperaiou , Giorgos Filandrianos , Konstantinos Thomas , Giorgos Stamou

In recent years, there has been an explosion of AI research on counterfactual explanations as a solution to the problem of eXplainable AI (XAI). These explanations seem to offer technical, psychological and legal benefits over other…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-03 Mark T Keane , Eoin M Kenny , Eoin Delaney , Barry Smyth

Learning rewards from human behaviour or feedback is a promising approach to aligning AI systems with human values but fails to consistently extract correct reward functions. Interpretability tools could enable users to understand and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-10-16 Jan Wehner , Frans Oliehoek , Luciano Cavalcante Siebert

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) guide users on how to adjust inputs to machine learning models to achieve desired outputs. While existing research primarily addresses static scenarios, real-world applications often involve data or model…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2025-02-11 Ignacy Stępka , Mateusz Lango , Jerzy Stefanowski

We leverage diffusion models to study the robustness-performance tradeoff of robust classifiers. Our approach introduces a simple, pretrained diffusion method to generate low-norm counterfactual examples (CEs): semantically altered data…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-04-18 Eric Yeats , Cameron Darwin , Eduardo Ortega , Frank Liu , Hai Li

Machine learning is increasingly applied in high-stakes decision making that directly affect people's lives, and this leads to an increased demand for systems to explain their decisions. Explanations often take the form of counterfactuals,…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-05-20 Maximilian Schleich , Zixuan Geng , Yihong Zhang , Dan Suciu

Counterfactual explanations (CFEs) exemplify how to minimally modify a feature vector to achieve a different prediction for an instance. CFEs can enhance informational fairness and trustworthiness, and provide suggestions for users who…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-09-12 Yongjie Wang , Hangwei Qian , Yongjie Liu , Wei Guo , Chunyan Miao

The increasing use of machine learning in practice and legal regulations like EU's GDPR cause the necessity to be able to explain the prediction and behavior of machine learning models. A prominent example of particularly intuitive…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2020-01-28 André Artelt , Barbara Hammer

Counterfactuals operationalised through algorithmic recourse have become a powerful tool to make artificial intelligence systems explainable. Conceptually, given an individual classified as y -- the factual -- we seek actions such that…

We study the interpretability of predictive systems that use high-dimensonal behavioral and textual data. Examples include predicting product interest based on online browsing data and detecting spam emails or objectionable web content.…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2021-07-01 Yanou Ramon , David Martens , Foster Provost , Theodoros Evgeniou

Counterfactual explanations describe how to modify a feature vector in order to flip the outcome of a trained classifier. Obtaining robust counterfactual explanations is essential to provide valid algorithmic recourse and meaningful…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2024-03-22 Alexandre Forel , Axel Parmentier , Thibaut Vidal

Explainable Artificial Intelligence and Formal Argumentation have received significant attention in recent years. Argumentation-based systems often lack explainability while supporting decision-making processes. Counterfactual and…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2024-05-08 Gianvincenzo Alfano , Sergio Greco , Francesco Parisi , Irina Trubitsyna

Counterfactual explanations (CFE) are being widely used to explain algorithmic decisions, especially in consequential decision-making contexts (e.g., loan approval or pretrial bail). In this context, CFEs aim to provide individuals affected…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2021-02-09 Kiarash Mohammadi , Amir-Hossein Karimi , Gilles Barthe , Isabel Valera

Counterfactual explanation is one branch of interpretable machine learning that produces a perturbation sample to change the model's original decision. The generated samples can act as a recommendation for end-users to achieve their desired…

Machine Learning · Computer Science 2023-03-28 Tri Dung Duong , Qian Li , Guandong Xu