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Human relevance assessment is time-consuming and cognitively intensive, limiting the scalability of Information Retrieval evaluation. This has led to growing interest in using large language models (LLMs) as proxies for human judges.…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-04-28 Chuting Yu , Hang Li , Guido Zuccon , Joel Mackenzie , Teerapong Leelanupab

Evaluating large language models (LLMs) on open-ended tasks without ground-truth labels is increasingly done via the LLM-as-a-judge paradigm. A critical but under-modeled issue is that judge LLMs differ substantially in reliability;…

Machine Learning · Statistics 2026-01-30 Mingyuan Xu , Xinzi Tan , Jiawei Wu , Doudou Zhou

Making the relevance judgments for a TREC-style test collection can be complex and expensive. A typical TREC track usually involves a team of six contractors working for 2-4 weeks. Those contractors need to be trained and monitored.…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-03-27 Ian Soboroff

When asked, large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT claim that they can assist with relevance judgments but it is not clear whether automated judgments can reliably be used in evaluations of retrieval systems. In this perspectives paper,…

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly used to evaluate information retrieval (IR) systems, generating relevance judgments traditionally made by human assessors. Recent empirical studies suggest that LLM-based evaluations often align…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Laura Dietz , Oleg Zendel , Peter Bailey , Charles Clarke , Ellese Cotterill , Jeff Dalton , Faegheh Hasibi , Mark Sanderson , Nick Craswell

Using large language models (LLMs) to annotate relevance is an increasingly important technique in the information retrieval community. While some studies demonstrate that LLMs can achieve high user agreement with ground truth (human)…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-01-15 Watheq Mansour , J. Shane Culpepper , Joel Mackenzie , Andrew Yates

Evaluation and ranking of large language models (LLMs) has become an important problem with the proliferation of these models and their impact. Evaluation methods either require human responses which are expensive to acquire or use pairs of…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-06-11 Amit Dhurandhar , Rahul Nair , Moninder Singh , Elizabeth Daly , Karthikeyan Natesan Ramamurthy

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as automated judges to evaluate recommendation systems, search engines, and other subjective tasks, where relying on human evaluators can be costly, time-consuming, and unscalable. LLMs…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2025-02-10 Gerrit J. J. van den Burg , Gen Suzuki , Wei Liu , Murat Sensoy

Information retrieval (IR) evaluation remains challenging due to incomplete IR benchmark datasets that contain unlabeled relevant chunks. While LLMs and LLM-human hybrid strategies reduce costly human effort, they remain prone to LLM…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-09 Minjeong Ban , Jeonghwan Choi , Hyangsuk Min , Nicole Hee-Yeon Kim , Minseok Kim , Jae-Gil Lee , Hwanjun Song

The use of large language models (LLMs) for relevance assessment in information retrieval has gained significant attention, with recent studies suggesting that LLM-based judgments provide comparable evaluations to human judgments. Notably,…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-01-21 Charles L. A. Clarke , Laura Dietz

A good deal of recent research has focused on how Large Language Models (LLMs) may be used as judges in place of humans to evaluate the quality of the output produced by various text / image processing systems. Within this broader context,…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-04-27 Sourav Saha , Mandar Mitra , Aditya Dutta

The zero-shot capability of Large Language Models (LLMs) has enabled highly flexible, reference-free metrics for various tasks, making LLM evaluators common tools in NLP. However, the robustness of these LLM evaluators remains relatively…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-05-06 Rickard Stureborg , Dimitris Alikaniotis , Yoshi Suhara

Vision--Language Models (VLMs) have demonstrated success across diverse applications, yet their potential to assist in relevance judgments remains uncertain. This paper assesses the relevance estimation capabilities of VLMs, including CLIP,…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2024-08-05 Jheng-Hong Yang , Jimmy Lin

High-quality relevance judgements over large query sets are essential for evaluating Information Retrieval (IR) systems, yet manual annotation remains costly and time-consuming. Large Language Models (LLMs) have recently shown promise as…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2026-05-07 David Otero , Javier Parapar

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used as raters for evaluation tasks. However, their reliability is often limited for subjective tasks, when human judgments involve subtle reasoning beyond annotation labels. Thinking traces,…

Artificial Intelligence · Computer Science 2026-02-23 Xingjian Zhang , Tianhong Gao , Suliang Jin , Tianhao Wang , Teng Ye , Eytan Adar , Qiaozhu Mei

High relevance of retrieved and re-ranked items to the search query is the cornerstone of successful product search, yet measuring relevance of items to queries is one of the most challenging tasks in product information retrieval, and…

Accurate document retrieval is crucial for the success of retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) applications, including open-domain question answering and code completion. While large language models (LLMs) have been employed as dense…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2024-11-04 Tong Niu , Shafiq Joty , Ye Liu , Caiming Xiong , Yingbo Zhou , Semih Yavuz

Evaluating Information Retrieval (IR) systems relies on high-quality manual relevance judgments (qrels), which are costly and time-consuming to obtain. While pooling reduces the annotation effort, it results in only partially labeled…

Information Retrieval · Computer Science 2025-06-24 Catarina Pires , Sérgio Nunes , Luís Filipe Teixeira

The ability to rigorously estimate the failure rates of large language models (LLMs) is a prerequisite for their safe deployment. Currently, however, practitioners often face a tradeoff between expensive human gold standards and potentially…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-04-07 Minghe Shen , Ananth Balashankar , Adam Fisch , David Madras , Miguel Rodrigues

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used to support question answering and decision-making in high-stakes, domain-specific settings such as natural hazard response and infrastructure planning, where effective answers must convey…

Computation and Language · Computer Science 2026-02-11 Homaira Huda Shomee , Rochana Chaturvedi , Yangxinyu Xie , Tanwi Mallick